*  LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Cto 


l&utal  Science  Series* 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


FARM    POULTRY 


laural  Science 


THE  SOIL. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUTT-GFOWING. 

BUSH-FRUITS. 

FERTILIZERS. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE. 

THE  FARMSTEAD. 

RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING 

FARM  POULTRY. 

THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 


FARM  POULTRY 


A    POPULAR   SKETCH   OF  DOMESTIC  FOWLS 
FOR    THE  FARMER   AND   AMATEUR 


BY 

GEORGE    C.    WATSON,    M.S. 

Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  Pennsylvania   State  College 


SECOND   EDITION 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:   MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTJ 

1903  /       '  *r  ruf  F 


All  rights  reserved         ^^  or 


w 


-f 


COPYRIGHT,  1901 
BY   THE   M  ACM  ILL  AN   COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  June,  1901 
Reprinted  February,  1903 


pleasant 

.1.  HORACE  MCPARLAND  COMPANY 
HARRISBUBG   •  PENNSYLVANIA 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

POULTRY -RAISING  AS  A  BUSINESS 1-11 

Extent  of  business 2 

Capital  and  land  required 5 

A  variety  of  products       9 

Products  easy  to  market 10 

CHAPTER   II 

EGG  BREEDS  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  HEN 12-38 

Classification  as  to  utility 12 

General  characteristics  of  egg  breeds 15 

Leghorn 23 

Minorca 31 

Andalusian 33 

Spanish 34 

Hamburg 35 

Red  Cap 38 

CHAPTER   III 

MEAT  BREEDS  . 39-53 

General  characteristics 39 

Brahma 45 

Cochin 49 

Langshan 51 

Faverolle 52 

(v) 


vi  Content* 

CHAPTER  IV 

PAGES 

GENERAL-PURPOSE  FOWLS 54-73 

General  characteristics 54 

Plymouth  Rock 59 

Wyandotte 63 

Java 66 

Dominique 67 

Dorking 67 

Houdan 70 

Indian  Game 70 

Rhode  Island  Red  .    . 72 

CHAPTER   V 

FANCY  BREEDS 74-81 

Polish 75 

Game      77 

Silky 78 

Sultan 79 

Frizzle 79 

Rumpless 80 

Bantam     81 

CHAPTER   VI 

BUILDINGS    FOR    FOWLS  :    LOCATION,    PLANS    AND    CON- 
STRUCTION      82-111 

Location  of  buildings 82 

Construction  of  houses 90 

Size  of  building 94 


Contents  vii 
CHAPTER   VII 

PAGES 

BUILDINGS:  INTERNAL  ARRANGEMENTS  AND  YARDS   .   .   .    112-130 

Construction  of  perches 112 

Nests 115 

Drinking  fountains 119 

Yards  and  parks 124 

CHAPTER   VIII 

IMPROVEMENT  AND  BREEDING  OF  FOWLS 131-157 

Selection ' 131 

Selecting  eggs 133 

Heredity 140 

Variation ....  141 

In-and-in-breeding 144 

Cross-breeding 147 

Improvement  of  common  fowls 153 

CHAPTER   IX 

FEEDING  FOR  EGGS  AND  FOR  MEAT 158-186 

Exercise 159 

Quality  of  food 160 

Forced  feeding  for  eggs      160 

Grain  food 162 

Green  food 165 

Meat  food 168 

Feeding  for  meat  or  fattening 181 


viii  Contents 

CHAPTER    X 

PAGES 

INCUBATORS  AND  BROODERS 187-207 

Artificial  incubation .        189 

Selection  of  an  incubator 191 

Care  of  incubators 196 

Brooders  and  brooder  houses 198 

Home-made  brooders 205 

CHAPTER   XI 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  LITTLE  CHICKENS     208-221 

Food 209 

Exercise '. 213 

Feeding  troughs 215 

Drinking  fountains 217 

Brooders 218 

CHAPTER   XII 

CAPONS  AND  BROILERS 222-236 

Capon  rearing 222 

Preparing  capons  for  market 231 

Broilers 232 

CHAPTER    XIII 

DUCKS  AND  GEESE 237-260 

Ducks:    General  discussion ......  237 

Pekin 241 

Aylesbury 242 

Rouen 243 

Black  Cayuga 244 


Contents  ix 

PAGES 

Ducks:    Food  and  care 245 

Geese :    General  discussion «    .  250 

Toulouse 252 

Embden     ..." 254 

African 255 

Chinese      256 

Geese:    Food  and  care 257 


CHAPTER  XIV 

TURKEYS,  GUINEAS,  PEA-FOWLS,  PIGEONS 261-281 

Turkeys:    General  discussion 261 

Bronze 267 

Narragansett 268 

White  Holland    .    .  * 268 

Buff 269 

Slate 269 

Black      269 

Turkeys :    General  cave 270 

Guineas 274 

Pea-fowls     276 

Pigeons      . ' 277 

CHAPTER    XV 

PREPARING  AND  MARKETING  POULTRY  PRODUCTS  ...    282-307 

Dressing  poultry 283 

Packing  and  shipping •  .    .  289 

Shipping  live  poultry 297 

Handling  and  shipping  eggs      299 

Preserving  eggs  .- 302 


Contents 

CHAPTER   XVI 

AND  ENEMIES 

Lice 

Mitef 
Gapes 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES 308-329 

*   • 308 

Mites , 3]2 


313 

E°"P 310 

Cholera J^.  32Q 

Other  diseases 393 

Enemies    . 


APPENDIX 
IMPORTANT  POULTRY  PUBLICATIONS    .......  331 


*r  THE 
UNIVERSITY 

or 


FARM  POULTRY 


CHAPTER  I 

POULTRY  -  RAISING  AS   A    BUSINESS 

Now  that  the  extent  and  importance  of  the 
poultry  industry  is  recognized  by  every  one,  and 
particularly  by  those  who  have  made  the  subject 
a  study,  it  is  not  "necessary,  in  this  connection, 
to  enter  into  an  extended  discussion  of  the  pres- 
ent or  possible  usefulness  of  domesticated  fowls. 
It  may  be  of  interest,  however,  to  note  some  of 
the  difficulties  which  hinder,  if  they  do  not  en- 
tirely prevent,  the  compilation  of  accurate  statis- 
tics of  the  value  of  the  poultry  and  poultry 
products  of  the  United  States. 

When  one  attempts  to  compare  poultry- raising 
with  other  agricultural  industries  he  is  confronted 
with  more  or  less  inaccurate  data.  Many,  at  first 
thought,  place  the  value  of  this  industry  far  below 
its  true  worth,  and  it  will  require  but  a  moment's 
reflection  to  understand  why  this  is  so.  Both 
the  rural  and  suburban  population  look  to  the 
domestic  fowls  for  a  little  help  each  day  in  pro- 
viding the  table  with  wholesome  and  palatable 

A  (1) 


2  Farm  Poultry 

food.  So  general  is  the  consumption  of  fowls  and 
of  poultry  products  that  some  of  them  are  found 
among  the  constituents  of  almost  every  well-pre- 
pared meal.  As  a  large  proportion  of  the  poul- 
try products  go  directly  to  supply  the  daily  wants 
of  the  producers'  families,  it  is  impossible  to  as- 
certain with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  amount 
thus  consumed.  Very  few  records  are  kept  by 
the  producers  of  either  the  fowls  or  eggs  thus 
consumed,  and  whenever  statements  are  made  for 
the  census-taker  or  others,  the  aggregate  is  much 
more  likely  to  be  underestimated  than  exagger- 
ated. Consequently  published  data  are  likely  to 
be  more  or  less  misleading,  and  to  give  far  too 
low  a  value  to  the  industry. 

The  United  States  Census  Report  for  1890 
gives  the  number  of  fowls  and  eggs  produced 
"on  farms  only"  as  follows: 

Chickens 258,871,125 

Turkeys ' 10,758,060 

Geese 8,440,175 

Ducks 7,544,080 

Dozens  of  eggs 819,722,916 

If  the  value  of  the  chickens  be  estimated  at 
forty  cents,  the  turkeys  and  geese  at  sixty  cents 
and  the  ducks  at  forty-five  cents  each,  the  total 
amount  of  the  three  will  equal  $118,459,824.  If 
to  this  is  added  an  estimated  value  of  the  eggs  at 
fifteen  cents  per  dozen,  which  is  more  than  three 


Value  of  Products  3 

cents  per  dozen  below  the  average  price  in  New 
York  city  for  fresh  eggs,  the  total  will  equal 
$241,418,660,  which  is  considerably  more  than 
the  total  value  of  the  coal,  iron,  and  mineral  oil 
produced  in  the  United  States  for  the  same 
period.  As  these  estimates  apply  only  to  the 
products  of  farms  and  do  not  include  the  poul- 
try products  of  villages  and  cities,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  total  value  of  the  whole  product  of  the 
country  must  far  exceed  the  moderate  estimates 
given  above. 

LITTLE    CAPITAL    KEQUIKED 

To  a  person  contemplating  a  new  enterprise  or 
the  extension  of  a  business  already  established, 
one  of  the  first  questions  to  be  solved  is  "What 
will  it  cost?"  It  often  happens  that  the  original  or 
first  cost  of  an  enterprise,  prevents  persons  of 
moderate  resources  from  making  what  in  their 
judgment  would  be  a  safe  investment.  Probably 
there  is  no  important  branch  of  animal  industry 
that  requires  so  little  outlay  in  labor  and  money 
as  poultry-keeping.  Unlike  many  enterprises,  the 
poultry  business  may  be  begun  in  a  small  way 
and  conducted  successfully  with  the  expenditure 
of  a  very  meager  sura  of  money.  In  breeding 
other  kinds  of  pure-bred  farm  stock  the  first 
cost  necessarily  must  be  considerable,  particu- 


4  Farm  Poultry 

larly  if  worthy  animals  are  used  for  foundation 
stock. 

A  small  beginning,  which  is  often  desirable  in 
order  to  give  the  preliminary  training  necessary 
to  final  success,  may  be  made  with  the  resources 
of  an  ordinary  farm.  This  modest  beginning 
would  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  develop- 
ment or  extension  of  the  business  should  cir- 
cumstances and  experience  warrant  such  a  course. 
In  this  respect  the  poultry  business  furnishes  a 
marked  contrast  to  some  other  lines  of  work, 
particularly  to  those  that  require  tools  and  ma- 
chinery to  place  a  finished  product  upon  the 
market.  If  the  business  be  largely  increased, 
new  and  larger  machines  must  be  obtained  in 
order  to  produce  with  the  greatest  economy,  and 
consequently  a  sacrifice  must  be  made  in  the 
equipment  of  the  original  small  plant. 

To  those  about  to  make  their  first  attempt  in 
poultry -keeping  on  an  extensive  scale,  it  may  be 
said  that  one  of  the  safest  ways,  if  not  the  only 
sure  way  to  success,  is  to  start  in  a  moderate  way 
and  to  delay  long  enough  to  learn  the  business 
thoroughly  before  much  is  invested.  Mistakes 
will  certainly  be  made  and  difficult  problems  will 
present  themselves  for  solution  before  success  can 
be  attained  in  any  extended  way.  Many  have 
made  the  experiment  of  investing  considerable 
money  and  labor  before  the  business  was  even 


Causes  of  Failure  5 

fairly  well  understood,  and  failure,  or  discour- 
agement —  which  often  amounts  to  the  same 
thing  — has  been  the  consequent  result. 

While  failures  due  solely  to  inexperience  are 
in  evidence  most  of  the  time,  yet  new  recruits 
are  continually  rushing  forward  to  repeat  the  dis- 
aster. This  is  without  doubt  due  largely  to  the 
desire  on  the  part  of  many  to  accumulate  money 
rapidly  and  before  they  have  time  to  pass  through 
the  important  apprenticeship  of  learning  the  busi- 
ness. Undoubtedly  many  are  tempted  to  go  into 
the  poultry  business  on  a  somewhat  extensive 
scale  because  a  few  fowls  are  kept  on  many  farms 
seemingly  with  profit,  and  yet  without  much 
care.  The  small  flocks  that  have  the  run  of 
the  farm  may  thrive  with  little  care,  but  large 
colonies  demand  close  attention  from  one  who  has 
passed  the  stage  of  a  novice,  if  the  greatest  suc- 
cess is  to  be  attained. 


COMPAKATIVELY   LITTLE   LAND   NECESSAKY 

Unless  it  is  desirable  to  raise  all,  or  nearly  all, 
of  the  grain  which  the  fowls  require,  on  the  same 
farms  011  which  they  are  kept,  comparatively  lit- 
tle land  will  be  required.  Especially  is  this  true 
with  ducks  and  chickens.  Turkeys,  on  account 
of  their  roving  nature,  do  best  when  given  a  wide 
range.  Laying  hens,  however,  will  do  well  when 


6  Farm  Poultry 

confined  in  a  comparatively  small  yard  or  "run" 
if  the  ground  is  kept  clean  by  cultivation.  Four 
or  five  acres  will  afford  ample  space  for  eight 
hundred  hens  if  suitable  arrangements  are  made 
to  keep  them  in  moderately  small  flocks.  This 
amount  of  land  will  also  provide  ample  space  for 
the  rearing  of  the  young  required  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  flock.  If  the  grain  food  be  pur- 
chased, very  little  land  will  be  necessary, — only 
enough  for  the  houses,  yards  and  sufficient  space 
whereon  to  grow  the  green  or  succulent  food.  A 
very  small  area  will  be  sufficient  on  which  to  raise 
the  green  food  if  the  land  be  kept  in  a  high  state 
of  fertility.  It  is  true  that  in  some  parts  of 
the  year  it  will  be  advantageous  to  have  a  wide 
range,  if  one  can  be  provided. 

Fowls,  like  other  classes  of  live  stock,  require 
more  exercise  while  they  are  growing  and  devel- 
oping, and  do  best  in  a  large  run  or  park,  as 
so  much  depends  on  a  strong  body  and  constitu- 
tion when  the  period  of  greatest  usefulness  is 
reached.  It  is  of  relatively  more  importance, 
therefore,  to  have  a  large  run  for  the  young  and 
immature  fowls  than  for  the  mature  birds,  which 
latter  are  being  maintained  solely  for  the  pro- 
duction of  eggs.  Fattening  fowls  require  com- 
paratively little  exercise,  their  health  is  not  mate- 
rially impaired  by  a  short  confinement,  and  more 
rapid  gain  in  weight  is  secured  by  confining  them. 


Quick  Profits  1 

QUICK   RETURNS   FROM   MONEY   INVESTED 

Of  the  various  branches  of  animal  industry 
there  is  probably  none  that  brings  such  quick 
returns  as  poultry  -  keeping.  It  matters  not 
whether  the  poultry-raiser  desires  to  produce 
eggs,  meat  in  the  form  of  broilers,  mature  fowls, 
or  capons,  the  product  is  ready  for  market  within 
a  comparatively  short  time.  Even  though  the 
slowest  method  be  pursued,— that  of  selecting 
eggs  for  hatching,  from  which  are  to  be  reared 
the  fowls  to  produce  eggs, — there  should  be  no 
difficulty  in  producing  for  the  market  in  from 
five  to  eight  months. 

With  other  classes  of  live  stock,  not  only  is 
a  much  longer  time  required  in  which  to  secure 
returns,  but  also  a  greater  money  outlay  at  the 
beginning.  The  fact  that  so  little  time  is  required 
for  the  development  of  a  paying  business  makes 
poultry-keeping  an  attractive  field  for  those 
having  little  capital,  and  who  must  enter  some 
business  that  will  bring  quick  returns. 

MAY  BE  CONDUCTED  BY  PERSONS  OF  EITHER  SEX 

The  fact  that  the  poultry  business  requires  lit- 
tle land,  few  and  inexpensive  buildings  and  no 
heavy  and  complicated  machinery,  makes  it  well 
suited  to  persons  of  either  sex  who  are  unablo 


8  Farm  Poultry 

physically,  or  who  do  not  desire,  to  perform 
heavy  manual  labor  or  any  work  that  requires 
the  outlay  of  considerable  effort  and  strength. 

Those  who  desire  to  work  more  or  less  out  of 
doors,  and  who  are  willing  to  attend  regularly  to 
details,  may  find  congenial  employment  and  may 
undertake  to  perform  the  necessary  operations  of 
poultry-keeping  without  the  feeling  that  they  are 
starting  in  a  business  for  which  they  are  not 
fitted.  It  will  frequently  be  noticed  that  success 
in  business  is  attained  by  those  who  for  various 
reasons  are  more  or  less  unfitted  for  the  work 
which  they  have  undertaken,  and  who  conse- 
quently achieve  success  through  great  persever- 
ance alone  and  in  the  face  of  greater  difficulties 
than  their  competitors  experience. 

Many  people  of  means  and  refined  tastes  have 
profitably  taken  up  the  study  and  occupation  of 
poultry-keeping  as  a  means  of  affording  health- 
ful out-of-door  exercise,  in  order  to  regain  failing 
health  or  to  afford  a  change  and  rest  from  pro- 
fessional activity.  Many  women  have  become 
expert  breeders,  or  producers  of  various  poultry 
products  and  are  recognized  as  authorities  in  their 
respective  lines  of  work.  There  is  no  branch  of 
animal  industry  that  offers  so  many  inducements 
to  women  as  some  of  the  various  branches  of 
poultry -keeping,  particularly  if  they  desire  to 
experiment  in  the  production  of  new  forms. 


Clio  ice  of  Product 


A    GREAT    VARIETY    OF    PRODUCTS 

Quite  unlike  other  lines  of  live-stock  work,  in 
which  only  a  few  products  are  raised  on  the  farm 
ready  for  the  market,  poultry-keeping  fortunately 
offers  to  the  poultryman  arid  farmer  an  oppor- 
tunity to  choose  from  a  number  of  marketable 
products  those  which  he  prefers  to  provide  or 
which  in  his  judgment  will  most  likely  bring 
pleasure  or  financial  success.  It  is  noticed  that 
circumstances  are  often  such  that  certain  lines 
of  poultry  work  can  be  conducted  with  greater 
success  than  others,  so  that  those  who  study 
closely  their  own  adaptabilities  are  enabled  to 
select  at  the  outset  the  line  of  work  that  is  likely 
to  prove  the  most  satisfactory. 

To  carry  out  this  idea  somewhat  further  by 
means  of  an  illustration,  it  will  readily  be  seen 
that  if  a  poultryman  had  a  somewhat  limited 
space  for  fowls,  including  both  buildings  and 
yards,  so  that  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to 
keep  to  advantage  more  than  a  few  hundred  at 
most,  he  should  either  devote  his  energy  to  the 
production  of  fowls  of  high  merit  for  breeding 
purposes  or  confine  himself  to  egg  production. 
The  rearing  of  young  fowls  for  market  demands 
more  space  both  in  and  out  of  doors  than  a 
business  of  the  same  magnitude  in  which  egg 
production  is  the  chief  object.  The  various 


10  Farm   Poultry 

classes  of  domestic  hen,  with  turkeys,  ducks, 
geese,  and  pigeons,  furnish  a  great  variety  of 
products  that  find  ready  sale  in  the  markets. 
From  these  the  farmer  or  poultryman  may  select 
those  that  offer  to  him  the  greatest  special  induce- 
ments. 

PKODUCTS   EASY   TO   MAEKET 

With  the  modern  facilities  for  rapid  transpor- 
tation, the  various  poultry  products  may  be  sent 
to  market  hundreds  of  miles  distant  and  be 
placed  before  the  consumer  in  excellent  condi- 
tion. Eggs  only  a  few  days  old  may  be  served 
as  food  after  being  shipped  hundreds  of  miles 
by  express. 

While  the  best  products  may  be  sent  long  dis- 
tances by  express  with  profit,  the  poorer  ones 
seldom  pay  for  the  extra  cost  of  rapid  transit. 
Superior  products  create  new  demands.  Since 
more  attention  is  now  paid  to  poultry -raising  in 
this  country  than  was  given  to  the  industry  but  a 
few  years  ago,  many  highly  prized  special  articles 
have  been  produced  which  find  a  ready  market 
at  remunerative  prices  in  nearly  all  of  the  large 
cities.  As  better  products  are  placed  on  the 
market,  and  as  people  of  means  become  aware 
of  this  fact,  the  demand  for  a  good  article  soon 
becomes  as  strong  and  constant  as  that  for  the 


SMI  and  Profit  11 

cheaper  and  more  staple  articles.  As  soon  as 
a  worthy  article  is  produced  regularly,  customers 
are  ready  to  purchase.  The  best  on  the  market 
is  usually  sold  first.  Better  work  with  poultry 
will  eventually  insure  better  products,  which  find 
ready  sales  and,  in  turn,  create  new  demands. 
It  should  be  the  aim  of  each  person  who  is  about 
to  enter  the  poultry  business,  to  produce  the  best 
which  the  market  affords.  The  greatest  skill  is 
required  to  furnish  the  best,  but  articles  which 
are  produced  with  great  skill  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  business,  usually  yield  the 
greatest  profits. 


CHAPTER   II 

EGG   BREEDS  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  HEN 

AGRICULTURISTS  may,  for  convenience,  classify 
fowls  as  to  their  useful  qualities  as  — 

Egg  Breeds,  General -Purpose  Breeds, 

Meat  Breeds,  Fancy  Breeds. 

While  this  classification  gives  considerable 
information,  in  a  general  way,  yet  it  should  not 
be  inferred  that  the  distinctions  between  these 
classes  are  constant  or  very  pronounced.  In 
other  words,  a  classification  that  is  based  on 
utility  does  not  make  use  of  positive  character- 
istics. The  distinctions  are  relative  and  therefore 
quite  variable,  as  the  usefulness  of  any  breed  will 
depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  various  conditions, 
as  food,  care,  climate,  etc.  Again,  the  so-called 
general -purpose  fowls  form  a  connecting  link  be- 
tween those  which  are  most  highly  esteemed  as 
egg-producers  and  the  heavy,  clumsy  Asiatic  fowls, 
whose  most  useful  quality  is  the  production  of 
large  bodies  that  are  highly  valued  for  table  use. 
From  the  nature  of  the  classification  and  the  varia- 
tion of  the  fowls  from  the  standpoint  of  usefulness, 

(12) 


Classification  13 

it  will  readily  be  seen  that  different  breeders  may 
honestly  differ  as  to  the  exact  position  of  certain 
breeds. 

To  further  illustrate,  what  would  be  recognized 
as  a  meat  breed  by  one  breeder  might  by  another 
be  placed  among  the  general -purpose  fowls  on 
account  of  its  good  laying  qualities.  As  we  find 
all  grades  of  domesticated  cattle,  from  the  heavy 
strictly  beef  type  on  the  one  hand,  whose  useful- 
ness lies  in  meat  production  alone,  to  the  dairy  cow 
on  the  other  hand,  whose  tendency  toward  milk 
production  is  so  strong  that  she  can  with  difficulty 
be  induced  to  lay  on  enough  flesh  to  look  well,  so 
do  we  find  many  intermediate  grades  of  fowls, 
from  the  large,  massive  form  noted  for  the  pro- 
duction of  flesh  to  the  small  nervous  fowl  so 
famed  for  egg  production.  The  inexperienced 
person  will  find  more  or  less  confusion  on  account 
of  this  faulty  classification,  and  mistakes  are  to 
be  expected,  and  these  will  be  corrected  only  by 
study  and  observation. 

As  these  terms  are  current  and  are  likely  to 
be  used  in  the  future,  a  brief  discussion  of  them 
may  aid  in  arriving  at  a  better  understanding  of 
the  points  at  issue. 

The  egg  breeds  include  all  the  small  or  medium- 
sized  fowls  that  have  a  strong  tendency  toward  egg 
production.  They  are  generally  poor  sitters,  at 
least  while  young,  of  a  nervous  temperament,  being 


14  Farm  Poultry 

easily  frightened,  and  more  readily  take  to  flight 
than  do  the  other  breeds  that  are  noted  for  utility. 
The  Leghorns,  Spanish,  Minorcas,  and  Hamburgs 
are  good  representatives  of  this  class. 

The  meat  breeds  are  larger  than  the  egg  or 
the  general -purpose  breeds.  The  largest  breeds 
of  fowls  are  represented  in  this  class.  They  are 
generally  considered  to  be  poor  layers  except,  pos- 
sibly, in  a  few  cases  where  the  pullets  are  fairly 
good  layers.  They  are  heavy-bodied,  slow-moving 
fowls,  of  gentle  disposition,  and  are  persistent 
sitters.  The  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Langshans 
are  representative  breeds  of  this  class. 

The  general- purpose  breeds,  as  the  term  indi- 
cates, include  those  fowls  that  are  of  fair  size  and 
furnish  a  good  quality  of  meat  when  it  is  properly 
prepared.  They  will  also  produce  a  good  quantity 
of  eggs  when  kept  under  favorable  conditions  for 
egg  production.  The  Plymouth  Eocks  and  Wyan- 
dottes  are  familiar  breeds  of  this  class. 

The  fancy  breeds  include  those  fowls  that  are 
reared  on  account  of  their  peculiar  or  pleasing  ap- 
pearance, and  are  not  bred  exclusively  for  utility. 
While  many  of  the  so-called  fancy  breeds  may 
serve  a  useful  purpose  in  furnishing  eggs  and 
meat,  they  cannot  successfully  compete  with  other 
classes  when  usefulness  alone  is  considered.  The 
Polish  and  Bantams  may  be  taken  as  familiar 
representatives. 


Egg  Breeds  Described  15 

GENEKAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND    SIZE   OF  EGG  BREEDS 

While  those  breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls  that 
may  be  classed  as  distinctively  egg  producers  vary 
somewhat  in  size  and  form,  yet  they  differ  so  ma- 
terially from  the  general-purpose  and  meat  breeds 
that  they  may  well  be  placed  by  themselves  if  for 
no  other  reason  than  the  one  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic of  size.  Almost  without  exception  the 
noted  egg- producing  breeds  are  small  or  medium 
in  size  and  possessed  of  a  neat,  trim  appearance, 
which  gives  them  an  air  of  activity.  They  are 
also  somewhat  longer-legged  in  proportion  to  their 
size  than  the  meat  breeds,  yet  those  having  the 
most  robust  constitution  do  not  appear  to  be  small 
or  long-legged. 

While  mature  fowls  of  some  of  the  heaviest 
breeds  of  this  class  should  weigh  from  six  to  eight 
pounds,  yet  the  weight  is  seldom  mentioned  in  de- 
scriptions. This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact 
that  egg  production  is  the  chief  consideration,  re- 
gardless of  the  weight  of  the  fowl. 

The  specific  purpose  for  which  these  fowls  are 
reared  being  egg  production,  the  breeder  does 
not  care  to  sacrifice  this  product  for  increased 
meat  production,  except  as  increased  vigor  in  the 
individual  is  likely  to  bring  an  increase  in  size, 
a  subject  that  is  discussed  somewhat  fully  in  the 
chapter  on  breeding. 


16  Farm  Poultry 

Disposition. — Almost  without  exception,  a  ner- 
vous, active  disposition  is  characteristic  of  the 
various  varieties  of  fowls  which  are  noted  for 
egg-production.  They  are  naturally  quick,  alert, 
easily  frightened,  and  when  once  thoroughly 
aroused  fly  almost  with  the  ease  of  wild  birds. 
On  account  of  this  activity,  they  like  a  wide 
range  and  ordinarily  do  best  when  not  closely 
confined.  Many  varieties,  however,  thrive  well 
when  kept  within  inclosures,  if  the  confinement 
is  not  too  rigorous. 

Whenever  inclosures  are  provided  to  restrict 
their  range,  careful  handling  is  necessary  in  order 
that  the  practice  of  using  their  wings  as  a  means 
of  locomotion  may  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 
Habit,  when  once  acquired,  is  not  easily  changed; 
consequently  breeders  find  it  difficult  to  correct 
the  annoying  tendency  to  fly  on  slight  provocation 
when  the  habit  is  well  formed.  Many  a  fine  fowl 
has  suffered  the  death  penalty  for  continually 
flying  over  inclosures.  Whenever  a  few  fowls  of 
a  flock  or  pen  have  acquired  the  habit  of  flying 
over  the  inclosures  or  fences,  a  reasonable  modi- 
fication of  the  inclosure  to  correct  the  evil  rarely 
suffices.  It  has  been  said  with  much  aptness 
that  "Egg  breeds  of  fowls,  like  honey  bees,  re- 
quire slow  movements  and  careful  handling  from 
the  attendant  for  success,  while  hasty  movements 
bring  annoyance  and  disaster," 


Early  Maturity  of  Egg  Breeds  17 

All  fowls  may  become  gentle  and  tame  by 
continued  careful  handling,  so  that  the  charac- 
teristic alertness  of  the  egg  breeds  need  not  pre- 
vent the  jtise  of  these  types,  even  though  tame 
fowls  are  required.  Leghorn  and  Minorca  hens 
have  frequently  been  seen  to  perch  on  a  basket 
carried  on  the  arm  of  an  attendant  who  was  en- 
tering the  pen  or  yard,  in  order  that  they  might 
secure  the  first  morsel  of  a  coveted  food.  This 
degree  of  familiarity  is  attained  only  by  continued 
thoughtfulness  and  gentleness  on  the  part  of  the 
attendant. 

Early  maturity. — The  noted  egg  breeds  are 
classed  among  the  earliest  maturing  fowls.  In 
fact,  they  almost  form  a  class  by  themselves  if 
judged  from  a  standpoint  of  development.  Early 
in  life  they  assume  the  appearance  of  miniature 
adults,  both  in  general  outline  or  conformation 
and  in  the  growth  of  plumage. 

The  early  feathering  greatly  enhances  the  prob- 
ability of  the  young  chick  living  to  reach  matur- 
ity. Other  things  being  equal,  the  more  rapidly 
the  young  chick  "feathers  out"  the  more  hardy  it 
becomes.  The  time  when  a  young  fowl  is  growing 
feathers  rapidly  is  always  a  delicate  period  in  its 
existence.  It  is  well  known  by  those  who  keep 
song  birds  in  cages  that  the  moulting  period  is  a 
trying  one  for  their  pets.  As  these  songsters  in 
the  moulting  period  are  producing  feathers,  which 


18  Farm  Poultry 

make  great  demands  on  their  systems,  their  con- 
dition is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  young  fowl 
that  is  producing  feathers  for  protection  at  the 
expense  of  its  physical  organization.  It  is  diffi- 
cult if  not  impossible  for  a  fowl  having  a  weak 
constitution  to  produce  feathers  rapidly. 

While  all  egg  breeds  are  not  of  equal  hardiness 
in  this  respect,  yet  as  a  class  they  pass  rapidly 
through  the  most  delicate  periods  of  infancy, 
which  goes  a  long  way  toward  placing  them  as 
the  most  hardy  of  fowls.  The  individuals  of  egg 
breeds  develop  combs  and  wattles  early  in  life, 
which  still  further  give  them  the  appearance  of 
small  adults.  At  no  time  do  they  appear  so  ill 
proportioned  and  awkward  as  do  the  good  sized 
though  undeveloped  young  of  the  larger  breeds. 

Poor  sitters. — All  noted  egg-producing  fowls 
are  poor  and  uncertain  sitters.  The  term  "non- 
sitters  "  has  frequently  been  used  to  designate  va- 
rious breeds  of  fowls  possessed  of  a  marked  ten- 
dency toward  egg  production  at  the  expense  of  a 
disposition  to  incubate. 

Breeders  have  long  been  trying  to  further  de- 
velop the  tendency  of  egg  ,  production  that  is 
inherent  in  all  the  Mediterranean  fowls,  which 
has  resulted  in  producing  an  exclusively  egg-pro- 
ducing machine.  The  marked  development  in 
egg  production  in  this  class  of  fowls  has  been 
accomplished  at  the  expense  of  other  desirable 


Unreliable  Incubators  19 

qualities.  In  other  words,  the  whole  energy  of 
the  fowl  is  devoted  to  the  one  particular  pur- 
pose of  producing  eggs.  So  far  has  this  been 
carried  that  breeders  are  now  seeking  to  breed 
fowls  having  stronger  constitutions,  that  this 
specialization  may  be  carried  to  a  still  greater 
extreme. 

The  tendency  toward  egg  production  has  be- 
come so  great  that  the  hen  has  comparatively  little 
desire  to  rear  young  and  otherwise  exercise  her  ma- 
ternal instincts.  Almost  without  exception,  those 
breeds  of  fowls  that  are  noted  especially  for  egg 
production  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  natural 
incubation  if  any  considerable  number  of  fowls  are 
to  be  reared.  Breeders  are  therefore  compelled  to 
resort  to  artificial  incubation,  or  to  keep  largely  if 
not  wholly,  for  incubation,  some  fowls  of  another 
breed,  whose  maternal  instincts  make  them  good 
mothers.  Occasionally  individuals  of  the  egg 
breeds  become  "broody"  and  under  favorable  con- 
ditions prove  to  be  persistent  sitters,  but  too  fre- 
quently the  desire  to  incubate  is  but  a  fickle  one  and 
indulged  in  at  the  expense  of  the  owner  who  sup- 
plies the  "sitting  of  eggs."  As  the  hens  become 
older  the  tendency  to  incubate  becomes  stronger. 
While  these  fowls  are  extremely  poor  sitters,  yet 
so  long  as  they  continue  to  incubate,  though  it 
be  somewhat  rarely,  the  term  "non-sitters"  cannot 
strictly  be  applied  to  them, 


20  Farm  Poultry 

Good  foragers. — These  egg  breeds  rank  among 
the  most  active  and  industrious  fowls,  as  many 
a  good  housewife  can  testify  whose  cherished 
flower  garden  has  undergone  a  system  of  sur- 
face culture  instituted  by  a  Leghorn  hen.  All 
the  noted  egg  producers  are  very  alert,  and 
are  well  suited  to  foraging,  and  may  obtain  a 
considerable  portion  of  their  living  if  a  wide 
range  is  provided.  They  are  not  only  active, 
but  seem  to  be  constantly  on  the  lookout  for 
food.  It  is  true  that  often,  under  otherwise  fa- 
vorable conditions,  they  seem  to  endure  close 
confinement  very  well.  This  is  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  hardy  and  will  stand 
more  or  less  abuse  and  still  maintain  a  thrifty 
appearance.  They  thrive  in  spite  of  confinement, 
not  because  of  it.  The  most  skilful  breeders, 
who  are  unable  to  give  their  fowls  the  desired 
run  or  yard,  almost  invariably  provide  means 
for  giving  the  fowls  exercise,  which  may  be  done 
by  requiring  them  to  scratch  among  litter  for 
their  food.  This  will  in  a  degree  modify  the  evil 
of  close  confinement. 

There  is  not  the  least  doubt  that  many  fowls 
that  are  now  kept  in  close  confinement  would 
be  more  healthy,  give  a  larger  percentage  of 
fertile  eggs,  and  in  the  end  prove  much  more 
profitable  if  greater  freedom  could  be  afforded 
them. 


Warm   Quarters  Required  21 

Sensitiveness  to  cold. — All  of  the  noted  egg 
breeds  have  large  combs  and  wattles,  which 
make  them  sensitive  to  low  temperatures.  Some 
of  the  breeds  having  extremely  large  combs  and 
wattles  are  so  liable  to  have  them  frosted  in  the 
colder  latitudes  that  warm  quarters  must  be  pro- 
vided if  the  production  of  eggs  in  the  winter 
time  is  a  requisite.  Theory  and  practice  agree 
that  a  lower  degree  of  temperature  will  be  en- 
dured without  serious  results  if  the  quarters  oc- 
cupied by  the  fowls  are  free  from  drafts. 

Breeders  have  sought  to  remedy  this  some- 
what serious  objection  by  breeding  "rose -combs," 
that  are  not  so  readily  frozen.  In  practice  this 
is  found  to  be  only  a  partial  remedy,  as  the  wat- 
tles, when  extremely  large,  are  almost  as  sensi- 
tive to  cold  as  the  large,  thin,  upright  combs. 

The  egg  breeds  are  much  closer  feathered  than 
the  fleshy  Asiatics  (Brahmas,  Cochins  and  Lang- 
shans),  which  endure  low  temperatures  so  well. 
The  thicker  coat  of  fluffy  feathers  of  the  Asiatics 
undoubtedly  forms  a  thicker  dead  air  space  than 
do  the  thinner  and  more  compact  coats  of  the 
egg  breeds.  The  comparatively  long  and  naked 
shanks,  large  combs  and  wattles,  with  a  compact 
coat  of  feathers,  ill  prepare  the  latter  to  withstand 
the  severity  of  the  northern  winter  when  more  or 
less  exposed  by  the  neglect  or  indifference  too 
often  accorded  the  fowls  on  the  average  farm. 


22  Farm  Poultry 

It  should  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  these 
fowls  are  not  suited  to  the  northern,  central  and 
New  England  states,  for  they  are  the  best  winter 
layers  when  warm  and  comfortable  quarters  are 
provided.  Even  when  more  or  less  neglected  they 
may  still  prove  to  be  wholly  satisfactory  as  winter 
layers  on  account  of  their  hardiness  and  their 
great  natural  tendency  to  produce  eggs.  The  very 
fact  that  they  do  so  well  under  comparative  ne- 
glect is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  such  unsat- 
isfactory results  in  poultry  -  keeping :  fowls  that 
will  live  with  little  care  are  likely  to  receive 
little  care.  It  often  happens  that  the  most  deli- 
cate breeds  receive  the  most  care. 


BREEDS    AND    VARIETIES 

The  most  noted  egg  breeds  now  reared  in  the 
United  States  include  the  so-called  Mediterranean 
fowls,  which  comprise  the  following  breeds:  Leg- 
horn, Minorca,  Ancona,  Andalusian,  and  Span- 
ish. To  these  should  be  added  the  Hamburg, 
Red  Cap,  Houdan,  and  perhaps  some  others. 
Some  of  these  breeds  are  further  subdivided  into 
numerous  varieties  which  partake  of  the  same 
general  form  and  disposition  but  differ  greatly  in 
color  of  plumage. 

In  producing  so  great  a  variety  in  plumage  as 
seen  m  the  numerous  varieties  of  some  breeds, 


Breeds  and   Varieties  23 

notably  the  Leghorn,  foreign  blood  has  been  in- 
troduced which  has  modified,  to  some  extent,  the 
laying  propensities.  At  first  thought  the  prac- 
tice of  introducing  the  blood  of  an  alien  breed  in 
the  formation  of  a  new  variety  of  an  egg  breed 
would  be  condemned;  but  when  it  is  once  well 
understood  that  crossing  within  certain  limits 
brings  increased  vigor  to  the  progeny,  it  may  be 
seen  that  for  egg  production  alone  the  new  va- 
riety, which  is  given  a  little  more  robustness, 
may  be  made  to  produce  as  many  eggs  by  a  pro- 
cess of  moderately-forced  feeding  as  the  some- 
what more  delicate  pure  breed  whose  inherent 
tendency  to  egg  production  may  be  a  little 
stronger. 

Leghorn. — This  is  one  of  the  Mediterranean 
breeds  whose  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  city  of  Leghorn  in  Italy,  whence 
they  are  thought  to  have  been  brought  to  Amer- 
ica. The  early  history  of  the  breed  is  now  more  or 
less  obscure,  and  this  is  due,  no  doubt,  in  a  large 
degree,  to  the  fact  that  they  were  unpopular  for 
many  years  after  they  were  introduced  into  this 
country.  Although  they  are  credited  with  being 
introduced  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  it  was  not  until  after  the  middle  of  the 
century  that  they  attracted  much  attention.  As 
the  popular  animals  and  crops  are  most  written 
about,  it  is  not  strange  that  a  more  or  less  un- 


24  Farm  Poultry 

popular  breed  should  pass  for  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury with  comparatively  slight  notice.  Since  the 
introduction  of  the  Leghorns,  however,  they  have 
been  considerably  changed  and  bred  to  that  degree 
of  perfection  that  has  designated  them  an  Amer- 


Fig.  1.    A  White  Leghorn  cockerel. 

icanized,  if  not  an  American  breed.  In  the  early 
history  of  these  fowls  in  this  country  they  were 
spoken  of  as  being  of  various  colors  yet  all  par- 
taking of  the  same  general  nature,  and  were 
recognized  as  belonging  to  the  same  breed.  The 


Varieties 


25 


different  varieties    that  are  now  recognized   had 
not  then  been  formed. 

All  varieties   of    Leghorns    are    comparatively 
small    in    size,    and    consequently    are    not   well 


Fig.  2.    White  Leghorns. 


suited  to  those  who  depend  largely  upon  their 
fowls  for  the  supply  of  fresh  meat  for  the  table. 
They  are  active  and  do  not  fatten  so  readily 
under  ordinary  conditions  as  larger  and  less 


26  Farm    Poultry 

active  breeds.  These  fowls  are  hardy,  and  all 
varieties  are  good  layers,  most  of  them  being 
extremely  prolific. 

The  fact  of  their  being  hardy  in  all  stages  of 
development,  as  well  as  extremely  good  layers, 
fits  them  for  the  farm,  where  a  considerable 
revenue  is  expected  from  the  sale  of  eggs  and 
where  comparatively  little  importance  is  placed 
on  the  production  of  meat.  They  are  noted  for 
laying  early  in  life ;  frequently  early-hatched  pul- 
lets lay  at  five  months  of  age  and  under  favora- 
ble conditions  will  lay  well  throughout  the  winter 
and  summer  months.  Many  records  of  more  than 
two  hundred  eggs  per  year  from  single  birds  are 
known,  and  even  large  flocks  have  produced  two 
hundred  eggs  per  hen  in  a  single  year. 

The  Leghorns  are  comparatively  light  eaters 
and  are  somewhat  less  expensive  to  raise  to  ma- 
turity than  larger  and  heavier -bodied  fowls.  All 
varieties  of  Leghorns  are  active  and  do  best  if 
given  wide  liberty  and  if  permitted  to  take  much 
exercise  in  search  of  food. 

The  varieties  of  the  Leghorn  breed  are: 

White,  Rose-comb  Brown, 

Rose-comb  White,  Buff, 

Black,  Silver  Duckwing. 

Brown, 

All  varieties  except  the  Rose -comb  White  and 
the  Rose -comb  Brown  have  large  single  combs, 


Varieties  27 

which,  in  the  males,  should  be  thin,  firm  and 
erect.  In  the  females  they  should  fall  gracefully 
to  one  side,  particularly  during  the  laying  period. 


Fig.  3.     Buff  Leghorn  cockerel  (3-  size). 

The  White  and  the  Brown  varieties  are  older  than 
the  others  and  are  usually  selected  when  egg  pro- 
duction is  the  sole  object.  Some  of  the  new  varie- 
ties have  not  been  bred  pure  long  enough  to  become 
thoroughly  fixed  in  their  distinctive  characteristics. 


28  Farm  Poultry 

There  is  practically  no  difference  between  the 
White  and  the  Brown  varieties  in  the  number  of 
eggs  produced.  The  White,  however,  lays  some- 
what larger  eggs  than  the  Brown,  and  the  shells 
are  of  a  purer  white;  that  is,  the  shells  of  the 
Brown  Leghorn  are  a  little  tinted,  although  they 
pass  for  white  eggs.  The  color  of  the  shells  is 
of  minor  importance,  although  it  is  recognized 
as  one  of  the  fancy  points  when  highest  priced 
eggs  are  produced.  In  some  markets  white  eggs 
sell  for  the  highest  prices ;  in  other  markets  brown 
eggs  are  preferred.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
the  difference  in  the  color  will  be  of  little  or 
no  value.  If,  however,  the  poultryman  desires 
to  produce  the  highest -priced  eggs  some  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  color  and  other  char- 
acteristics which  go  to  make  up  uniformity  of 
product. 

It  needs  no  argument  to  sustain  the  assertion 
that,  other  things  being  equal,  those  fowls  that 
lay  the  largest  eggs  are  to  be  preferred.  At 
first  thought  it  may  appear  to  be  of  more  impor- 
tance to  those  who  aim  to  produce  eggs  for  their 
own  table  than  to  those  who  produce  eggs  for 
the  market  to  be  sold  by  the  dozen.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  continued  success 
in  any  business  requires  the  business  man  to  sat- 
isfy his  customers.  He  should  aim,  therefore,  to 
produce  good -sized  eggs,  which  will  not  only  be 


Size  of  Eggs  29 

acceptable  as  to  quality ,  but  also  as  to  weight. 
It  will  be  evident  to  all  that  those  fowls  which 
lay  the  greatest  weight  of  eggs  during  the  year 
will  be  the  most  economical  for  the  farmer  to 
keep  to  supply  the  wants  of  his  own  table.  The 
difference  in  expense  of  keeping  fowls  which  lay 


Fig.  4.    Buff  Leghorn  pullet  (one-sixth  size). 

different  sized  eggs  is  not  commensurate  with  the 
difference  in  the  value  of  the  product.  This  sub- 
ject will  be  given  a  fuller  discussion  in  another 
chapter. 

It  is  asserted  that  some  of  the  other  and  newer 
varieties  of  Leghorns  are  equally  as  good  egg 
producers  as  the  White  and  the  Brown  varieties. 


30  Farm   Poultry 

However,  the  majority  of  practical  poultrymen 
who  have  selected  a  variety  of  the  Leghorns  and 
have  entered  into  the  business  of  egg  production 
for  profit  select  either  the  White  or  the  Brown 
variety. 


Fig.  5.     Single-comb  Brown  Leghorn  hen  (two-thirteenths  size). 

Fowls  of  a  solid  color,  like  the  White  or  the 
Black  variety  of  the  Leghorn  breed,  often  prove 
most  satisfactory  in  the  hands  of  a  poultryman 
whose  primary  object  is  to  produce  eggs,  and 
whose  secondary  object  is  to  sell  his  surplus  stock 
for  breeding  purposes  at  something  more  than 
the  price  which  dressed  poultry  brings  in  the 
market.  The  reason  for  this  is  readily  seen  when 
we  consider  that  old  fowls  must  be  disposed  of 
and  be  replaced  by  younger  and  more  vigorous 


Selling  Surplus  Stock  31 

stock.  Such  stock  may  frequently  be  sold  and 
used  for  breeders  after  having  served  a  period 
of  forced  egg  production,  provided  it  represents 
fairly  well  the  type  of  fowls  to  which  it  belongs. 
Fowls  are  more  likely  to  represent  a  type  in 
color  if  they  are  solid -colored  than  if  the  plu- 
mage is  distinguished  by  various  markings,  as 
seen  in  many  of  the  useful  breeds.  In  other 
words,  the  poultryman  finds  it  much  easier  to 
develop  the  one  point  of  egg  production  than  to 
breed  for  plumage  and  develop  for  egg  produc- 
tion at  the  same  time.  One  important  principle 
in  stock  breeding  should  not  be  forgotten, — that 
it  is  much  easier  to  develop  one  useful  quality 
to  its  greatest  perfection  than  to  develop  two 
qualities  which  are  not  closely  correlated.  Con- 
sequently, it  is  found  much  easier  to  produce 
strong,  robust  fowls  of  a  solid  color  for  egg  pro- 
duction than  to  produce  equally  as  good  birds 
of  a  colored  variety,  for  both  exhibition  and  use- 
ful qualities. 

Minorca. — This  breed  is  thought  to  have  been 
introduced  into  England  from  the  island  of  Mi- 
norca, in  the  Mediterranean  sea,  and  it  is  said 
by  some  poultry  authorities  to  be  the  progenitor 
of  the  White -faced  Black  Spanish  breed.  These 
are  the  heaviest  of  the  Mediterranean  fowls.  The 
cock  should  weigh  8  pounds  and  the  hen  6%. 
They  have  the  great  laying  tendencies  of  the 


32  Farm  Poultry 

fowls  of  this  class.  Lewis  Wright,  writing  of  Eng- 
lish fowls,  places  them  second  on  the  list  of 
egg  producers.  The  Minorcas  have  two  varieties, 
the  White  and  the  Black.  In  appearance  they 
resemble  the  Leghorns,  although  they  have  larger 


Fig.  6.     Black  Minorca  cockerel  (one-seventh  size). 

combs  and  wattles.  The  solid  color  is  in  their 
favor,  although  there  is  a  tendency  toward  white 
in  the  primaries  of  the  Black  variety.  They  have 
not  been  so  popular  for  egg  production  as  the 
Leghorns,  although  they  are  coming  more  into 
popular  favor.  The  eggs  of  this  breed  are  large 


Minorcas  33 

and  white.  They  average  about  eight  to  the  pound. 
As  Americans  prefer  fowls  having  yellow  skin  and 
shanks,  the  Minorcas  are  therefore  placed  at  a 
disadvantage,  as  their  skin  is  white  and  the  shanks 
and  feet  of  a  dark,  leaden  color  approaching  black. 


Fig.  7.    Black  Minorca  hen  (one-seventh  size). 

Andalusian.— This  breed  is  thought  to  be  na- 
tive to  Andalusia,  a  province  in  the  southern 
part  of  Spain.  It  is  a  large,  hardy  breed  of 
the  Mediterranean  class.  These  fowls  have  not 
been  popular  in  the  United  States,  partly  owing, 
no  doubt,  to  the  color  of  their  skin  and  shanks. 
The  skin  is  white  and  the  shanks  and  toes  are 


34  Farm  Poultry 

slaty  blue.  For  farm  purposes  they  are  consid- 
ered about  the  same  as  the  Minorcas.  There  is 
only  one  variety  of  this  breed.  The  plumage 
is  of  a  bluish  gray  or  dove  color,  approaching 
black  on  the  back.  They  do  not  breed  so  true 
to  color  as  some  of  the  other  breeds  of  this  class. 
They  are  excellent  layers,  but  are  not  supplant- 
ing the  Leghorns  for  this  purpose.  They  are 
classed  with  the  non-sitters,  but  have  a  somewhat 
greater  tendency  to  incubate  than  Leghorns  do. 

Spanish. —  Now  known  as  the  White -faced 
Black  Spanish.  This  breed  has  been  bred  pure  for 
a  great  many  years  in  England.  It  is  called  the 
oldest  of  the  non-sitting  varieties.  There  seems 
to  be  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  many  authorities 
that  this  Spanish  breed  came  from  some  of  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  and  probably  from  Spain. 
The  fowls  are  somewhat  longer- legged  in  propor- 
tion to  the  size  of  the  body  than  the  other  breeds 
of  this  class.  They  are  glossy  black  throughout, 
without  any  white  or  gray  feathers.  The  shanks 
and  toes  are  dark  in  color,  leaden  blue  approach- 
ing black.  The  Spanish  is  not  as  hardy  as  the 
other  breeds  mentioned,  particularly  when  imma- 
ture and  subjected  to  more  or  less  dampness.  The 
chickens  do  not  feather  as  rapidly  as  the  Leghorns 
and  are  considered  more  delicate.  On  account,  no 
doubt,  of  the  somewhat  more  delicate  constitution, 
the  eggs  are  more  or  less  infertile,  and  breeders 


35 

consequently  are  forced  to  keep  a  somewhat  smaller 
number  of  females  with  one  male  than  with  other 
breeds  of  fowls  noted  for  egg  production.  Breed- 
ers have  attempted,  and  succeeded  in  a  large  meas- 
ure, in  developing  more  fancy  points  with  the 
White -faced  Black  Spanish  than  with  other  noted 
egg  breeds  of  a  solid  color.  This  breeding  for 
fancy  points  is  thought  to  have  weakened  the  con- 
stitution considerably.  On  account  of  the  develop- 
ment of  these  fancy  points,  some  practical  poultry- 
keepers  are  inclined  to  consider  the  Spanish  as  a 
fancy  breed  rather  than  to  class  it  among  the  most 
useful  ones.  While  they  will  undoubtedly  produce 
a  good  supply  of  eggs  under  favorable  conditions, 
yet  the  fact  remains  that  few  if  any  practical  poul- 
trymen  select  them  solely  for  egg  production. 
The  white  face  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  this 
fowl,  as  the  white  of  the  face  and  the  ear  lobe 
form  a  continuous  smooth,  white  surface  extending 
down  as  far  as  the  wattles.  They  have  large, 
single  combs.  For  farm  purposes  they  should  be 
placed  after  the  Leghorns,  Minorcas,  and  Andalu- 
sians. 

Hamburg. —  The  Hamburgs  have  long  been 
known  as  prolific  egg  producers.  This  class  con- 
sists of  two  breeds,  the  Hamburgs  and  Eed  Caps. 
Of  the  former  there  are  six  varieties,  and  of  the 
latter  but  one.  The  Hamburg  breed  was  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Holland  or  North  Grer- 


36  Farm   Poultry 

many,  and  eventually  took  the  name  of  the  noted 
seaport,  Hamburg,  although  they  were  known  at 
that  time,  and  for  many  years  after  their  intro- 
duction into  Great  Britain,  as  the  "Dutch  every- 
day layers,"  or  "everlasting  layers."  They  are 
small,  active  fowls,  and  are  recognized  as  being 
extremely  good  layers  if  kept  under  favorable 
conditions.  It  is  said  that  when  properly  kept 
they-  will  equal  the  Leghorns  in  egg  production, 
although  as  a  matter  of  fact  comparatively  few 
poultrymen  select  Hamburgs  in  preference  to  the 
Mediterranean  fowls  when  egg  production  is  the 
sole,  or  even  the  chief,  object.  They  are  quite  as 
difficult  to  keep  in  confinement  as  any  of  the 
Mediterraneans,  being  small,  light,  and  easily 
frightened.  Their  tendency  to  fly  makes  it  diffi- 
cult to  keep  them  in  the  yards  or  runs.  Of  all 
breeds,  probably  there  is  none  that  likes  a  wide 
range  better  than  the  Hamburgs.  Their  eggs  are 
small  and  white,  being  somewhat  smaller  than 
those  of  the  Leghorns.  The  recognized  varieties 
are: 

Golden -spangled,  Golden-penciled,  White, 

Silver- spangled,  Silver-penciled,  Black. 

All  varieties  have  blue,  or  leaden-blue,  shanks 
and  toes  except,  possibly,  the  Black,  which  may 
have  dark,  leaden-blue  or  black  shanks  and  toes. 
All  have  rose  combs,  which  terminate  in  a  spike 
or  point  at  the  rear.  This  point  is  usually  some- 


37 


what  elevated,  and  is  one  of  the  characteristic 
features  of  the  Hamburg  comb.  When  these 
fowls  are  entered  for  competition  at  shows  or  ex- 
hibitions there  is  no  weight  qualification.  Their 
small  size  makes  them  unprofitable  as  table 


Fig.  8.    Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  cock. 

fowls;  then,  too,  the  color  of  their  shanks  and 
skin  is  against  them  for  table  use.  The  chickens 
are  not  noted  for  their  vigor,  and  it  is  said  that 
both  old  and  young  are  likely  to  suffer  from  want 
of  cleanliness  more  than  any  other  egg  breed, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  the  White-faced 
Black  Spanish.  Wright  says  they  do  not  stand 
crowding  well,  and  that  "where  six  Brahmas 
could  be  kept,  four  Hamburgs  are  quite  enough." 


38  Farm  Poultry 

Red  Cap. —  This  is  recognized  as  a  distinct 
breed,  yet  the  fowls  resemble  the  Hamburgs  in 
many  respects.  They  are  somewhat  larger  than 
the  Hamburgs,  and  compare  with  them  in  size 
much  as  the  Minorcas  compare  with  the  Leg- 
horns. They  are  quite  hardy,  and  are  extremely 
good  layers.  They  have  large  rose  combs,  which 
have  a  tendency  to  grow  somewhat  irregular. 
This  makes  them  difficult  to  breed  for  exhibition 
purposes.  They  have  slate-colored  shanks.  The 
plumage  is  red  and  black.  Cocks  should  weigh 
7%,  hen  6%,  cockerel  6,  and  pullet  5  pounds. 


CHAPTER    III 

MEAT   BREEDS 

THOSE  breeds  that  are  reared  especially  for 
the  production  of  meat,  either  for  home  consump- 
tion or  for  the  market,  are  good- sized,  compactly 
built  fowls,  probably  of  Asiatic  origin.  They 
are  much  heavier  than  those  that  are  reared  es- 
pecially for  egg  production  and  differ  from  them 
almost  as  much  in  general  outline  as  they  do  in 
size  and  weight.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  term  "meat  breeds,"  as  used  in  this 
volume,  refers  chiefly  to  those  breeds  whose 
greatest  usefulness  is  in  the  production  of  meat. 
While  the  quality  of  the  flesh  of  these  fowls 
may  not  exceed,  or  even  equal,  the  flesh  of  some 
other  breeds,  yet  on  account  of  their  large  size 
they  are  especially  prized  for  table  use  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  As  a  good-sized  roast  of  meat 
is  preferred  to  a  small  one,  so  large  fowls  are 
preferred  for  certain  methods  of  cooking.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  large  fowls  are  usually  served  to 
better  advantage  than  small  ones. 

As  a  rule  the  noted  meat  breeds  are  larger, 
more  compact  and  "blocky"  than  the  Mediter- 

(39) 


40  Farm  Poultry 

raneans.  They  are  broader  and  deeper  in  body, 
fuller  in  breast  and  have  shorter  necks  arid  legs. 
While  some  of  the  intermediate,  or  general -pur- 
pose fowls,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are 
reared  wholly  for  their  flesh,  they  should  not  be 
classified  with  the  distinctively  meat  breeds. 
The  latter  fowls  produce,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, a  good  number  of  eggs,  which,  together 
with  their  size,  warrants  placing  them  in  the 
intermediate. class,  which  may  be  called  general- 
purpose  breeds,  for  convenience  of  discussion. 
Whatever  may  be  said  of  those  fowls  noted  for 
meat  production  will  apply  only  in  part  to  the 
smaller  general -purpose  fowls,  so  far  as  they 
enter  into  competition  for  meat  production.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  the  so-called  general - 
purpose  fowls  are  reared  extensively  for  meat 
production,  but  they  are  nevertheless  of  a  different 
type  from  the  large,  heavy,  phlegmatic  breeds, 
whose  greatest  usefulness  is  in  the  production  of 
large,  plump  bodies,  most  highly  prized  for  table 
use.  These  meat  breeds  form  a  class  by  them- 
selves even  when  the  fowls  are  considered  from 
the  standpoint  of  weight  only. 

Disposition. — Without  exception  all  the  noted 
meat  breeds  are  slow  and  more  or  less  sluggish 
in  movement  and  are  not  easily  frightened.  They 
become  very  tame  and  gentle  with  careful  treat- 
ment and  do  not  show  a  dislike  to  handling,  as 


Quiet  Fowls  41 

do  some  of  the  smaller  and  more  nervous  breeds. 
They  are  not  well  calculated  to  seek  their  own 
living,  even  though  a  wide  range  be  provided. 
They  have  little  desire  to  roam  far  from 
home  unless  compelled  to  do  so  in  search  of 
food.  Even  then  their  slow  and,  in  many  cases, 
awkward  movements  totally  unfit  them  for  for- 
aging for  insects  and  other  foods  which  nature 
provides,  in  competition  with  more  active  breeds. 
Preeminently,  they  are  fowls  which  should  be  fed, 
rather  than  allowed  to  shift  for  themselves.  As 
the  more  active,  nervous  Mediterraneans  illustrate 
an  ideal  fowl  for  foraging,  so  the  heavy,  clumsy, 
phlegmatic  meat  breeds  represent  the  opposite 
extreme,  or  that  of  gentleness  and  docility. 

Easily  confined. — If  only  the  heavy-bodied 
fowls  are  to  be  reared  on  farms  where  all  fowls 
are  to  be  kept  within  inclosures,  comparatively 
low  fences  will  suffice.  When  mature,  fowls  of 
the  heaviest  breeds  rarely  fly  from  the  ground, 
and  are  satisfied  with  comparatively  low  perches. 
On  account  of  their  gentle  dispositions  they  make 
most  excellent  "lawn  fowls,"  and  may  be  given 
liberty  without  fear  of  trespassing  on  the  holdings 
of  a  near-by  neighbor.  In  the  minds  of  many,  a 
few  fowls  on  the  back  lawn  during  certain  por- 
tions of  the  year  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the 
surroundings  and  bring  pleasure  to  the  owner, 
who  delights  in  the  freedom  of  his  birds.  This 


42  Farm  Poultry 

is  particularly  true  if  he  is  assured  that  these 
birds,  which,  in  a  sense,  have  become  pets,  are 
quite  certain  not  to  annoy  either  the  members 
of  his  own  household  or  his  neighbors.  There 
are  probably  no  breeds  of  fowls  so  well  suited 
to  have  the  liberties  of  a  small  farm  or  lot  as 
these  slow-moving  Asiatics. 

Laying  qualities. — The  laying  qualities  of  these 
fowls  are  considerably  below  the  average,  and,  as 
a  rule,  are  not  to  be  compared  with  those  of  the 
more  active  fowls  which  originated  in  the  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

The  useful  qualities  of  animals  reach  the  high- 
est state  of  development  when  one  quality*  is  de- 
veloped at  the  expense  of  others.  Experience  has 
shown,  as  already  stated  (p.  31),  that  it  has  not 
been  possible  to  develop  in  the  same  individual  or 
breed  two  or  more  useful  qualities  to  the  highest 
stage  of  perfection.  The  two  most  highly  prized 
useful  qualities  in  our  domesticated  fowls  are  meat 
and  egg  production.  When  one  is  unusually  well 
developed  the  other  is  lessened  in  value  or  impor- 
tance, so  that  both  are  never  developed  to  the  great- 
est extent  in  one  individual.  Admirable  illustra- 
tions are  seen  in  the  development  of  animals  that 
are  highly  prized  for  the  production  of  meat  or  of 
milk.  In  no  instance  has  the  best  milker  been 
most  highly  prized  for  meat  production.  A  similar 
condition  exists  in  the  poultry  world.  While  the 


Meat  Breeds  as  Egg  Producers  43 

breeding  of  fowls  solely  for  egg  production,  or  for 
meat  production,  has  reached  a  high  state  of  per- 
fection, yet  these  two  qualities  are  not  brought  to 
the  highest  stage  of  perfection  in  one  individual. 
As  the  development  of  either  is  chiefly  a  matter 
of  food  and  constitutional  vigor,  the  greatest  and 
most  perfect  result  is  reached  when  the  energies 
of  the  individual  are  deflected  chiefly  in  one  direc- 
tion. With  both  animals  and  plants,  it  is  a  good 
maxim  to  "breed,  for  one  thing  at  a  time." 

While  some  breeds  or  varieties  of  large  fowls, 
notably  the  Light  Brahmas,  are  good  winter  layers 
while  young,  yet  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  from 
any  records  these  fowls  may  have  made  that  they 
are  equal  to  some  of  the  Mediterranean  breeds  as 
economical  egg-producing  machines,  when  the  en- 
tire life  of  the  fowl  is  taken  into  consideration. 
The  modern  poultryman  regards  his  fowls  much 
as  a  manufacturer  regards  his  machine,  and,  in 
either  case,  the  machine  that  will  run  at  its  fullest 
capacity  for  the  longest  period,  other  things  be- 
ing equal,  will  bring  to  the  owner  the  most  profit. 
While  poultry -keepers  may  rightly  consider  their 
fowls  as  machines  for  the  production  of  meat 
and  eggs,  yet  it  should  be  understood  that  it  is 
not  only  desirable,  but  necessary,  that  the  suc- 
cessful poultryman  regard  his  flock  from  a  stand- 
point other  than  a  purely  business  one.  It  is 
necessary  to  the  most  successful  poultry  busi- 


44  Farm   Poultry 

ness  that  the  poultrynian  love  his  fowls.  Unless 
the  live  stock  owner  has  a  love  for  the  animals 
under  his  charge,  and  which  is  entirely  distinct 
from  the  purpose  for  which  he  is  breeding  them, 
he  is  not  likely  to  study  their  necessities  and 
comforts. 

The  distinctive  meat  breeds  include  all  of  the 
Asiatics,  namely,  the  Brahmas,  Cochins  and 
Langsharis.  Of  the  Brahmas,  there  are  two  va- 
rieties, the  Light  and  the  Dark.  The  Cochins  are 
represented  by  four  varieties, —  Buff,  Partridge, 
White,  and  Black;  while  the  Langshans  have  but 
two  varieties, —  Black  and  White . 

Late  maturity. — It  is  well  understood  that  in 
the  development  of  animal  life  large  size  is  not 
conducive  to  early  maturity.  Thus,  heavy  meat 
breeds  require  a  much  longer  time  in.  which  to 
reach  maturity  than  do  the  smaller,  more  ac- 
tive fowls.  On  this  account  the  chicks  are 
considered  somewhat  more  delicate.  This  is  be- 
cause they  require  a  much  longer  time  while 
passing  the  early  and  critical  periods  of  their 
existence.  Little  chickens  are  more  delicate  than 
mature  fowls;  consequently,  the  longer  the  time 
required  to  pass  through  the  juvenile  period  the 
more  difficult  they  are  to  rear.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  little  chicks  are  well  suited  to  with- 
stand the  hardships  of  early  life  if  they  are 
kept  dry  and  clean.  The  young  of  some  varieties 


Origin   of  Brahmas  45 

are  much  better  protected  with  down  and  feathers 
than  others. 

BKAHMAS 

These  are  frequently  called  the  leading  breed 
of  the  Asiatics.  Light  Brahmas,  particularly, 
have  long  been  popular  with  many  poultry -keep- 


Fig.  9.    A  flock  of  Light  Brahmas. 

ers  throughout  the  country.  The  origin  of  these 
fowls  is  somewhat  obscure.  Wright  and  others 
think  that  they  probably  have  descended  from 
the  fowls  of  India,  while  Tegetmeier  asserts  that 
this  breed  was  probably  formed  in  America. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  the  Brahmas  is  the 
comb,  which  is  known  as  the  pea -comb.  It  is 
unlike  either  the  rose-  or  the  single  comb.  The 
pea -comb  has  been  described  as  the  union  of 
three  single  combs,  joined  at  the  front,  rear  and 


46  Farm  Poultry 

base,  the  middle  comb  being  somewhat  larger 
than  the  other  two.  Each  comb  should  have 
distinct  serrations. 

The  Brahmas  are  large  fowls, — in  fact,  the 
largest  variety  known  is  the  Light  Brahma.  The 
Light  Brahma  cock  should  weigh  12  and  the  hen 


Fig.  10.    Dark  Brahma  cock  (one-eighth  size). 

9%  pounds.  The  Dark  Brahmas  are  a  pound 
lighter.  The  Brahmas  have  yellow  skin  and 
shanks,  and  the  outsides  of  the  shanks  are  feath- 
ered. Leg -feathering  is  undoubtedly  a  protec- 
tion during  the  severe  winter  weather,  but  it  is 
somewhat  objectionable,  as  the  majority  of  con- 
sumers prefer  a  clean -legged  fowl. 


Characteristics  of  Brahmas 


47 


The  young  birds  do  not  "feather  out"  so  rap- 
idly as  the  young  of  the  Mediterraneans,  and 
consequently  are  ill-looking  while  young  on  ac- 
count of  their  partially  naked  appearance.  Some- 
times this  partial  nakedness  continues  throughout 


Fig.  11.     Dark  Brahma  hen  (one-seventh  size). 

a  considerable  period  of  their  growth.  Some 
farmers  object  to  Brahmas  on  account  of  this 
slow  feathering,  but  this  characteristic  cannot  de- 
tract materially  from  their  usefulness. 

When  not  injured  by  breeding  for  fancy  points, 
as  sometimes  is  done  in  the  production  of  fowls 
for  exhibition,  the  pullets  make  good  winter  layers. 


48  Farm  Poultry 

For  egg  production,  however,  they  should  not 
be  kept  longer  than  two  years.  If  the  pullets 
are  early  hatched  and  mature  reasonably  early, 
for  Brahmas,  they  should  not  be  kept  longer  than 
one  complete  season  of  usefulness  if  egg  produc- 
tion is  an  important  essential. 

The  Dark  Brahmas  are  not  considered  to  be  as 
good  layers  as  the  Light  variety,  and  are  quite 
as  difficult  to  breed  true  to  color.  The  Dark 
Brahmas  have  somewhat  delicate  feather  mark- 
ings which  are  difficult  to  produce  with  that 
degree  of  excellence  necessary  for  exhibition 
purposes. 

The  Brahmas  are  good  sitters,  in  fact  sit  too 
much  for  general -purpose  fowls,  and  are  consid- 
ered too  heavy  to  sit  on  eggs  of  light-weight  fowls. 
All  Asiatics  lay  buff-colored  eggs.  Some  of  them 
are  much  darker  than  others.  The  Brahmas  are 
"good  growers"  and  make  excellent  table  fowls. 
They  are  fairly  hardy  and  gain  rapidly  in  weight. 
The  meat  is  of  fair  quality,  but  does  not  equal 
that  of  the  Dorking  or  Game.  The  Dark  Brahmas 
are  not  quite  so  popular  as  the  Light,  which  is  no 
doubt  due  to  the  superior  egg  production  of  the 
latter.  Brahmas  do  well  in  small  runs  or  yards. 
When  liberally  fed  the  Brahmas  have  a  tendency 
to  become  too  fat  for  laying  and  for  breeding 
purposes.  Excessive  fatness  not  only  causes  fewer 
eggs,  but  a  larger  proportion  of  infertile  ones. 


Useful   Qualities  of  Cochins  49 


COCHINS 


The  Cochins  were  introduced  into  England  from 
China  about  1843,  when  the  ports  of  China  were 
opened  to  European  traders.  They  are  a  pound 
lighter  than  the  Light  Brahmas.  They  are  dis- 


Fig.  12.    Buff  Cochin  cock  (one-eighth  size), 

tinctively  table  .fowls.  The  hens  are  good  sitters, 
easily  handled,  and  are  slow  and  awkward  in 
movement.  The  young  are  fairly  hardy  after  the 
chickens  once  get  a  good  start.  They  grow  fast 
and  furnish  a  good  quantity  of  meat,  but  not  of 
the  best  quality.  They  are  considered  indifferent 
layers.  These  fowls  are  gentle  and  tame,  very 


50 


Farm  Poultry 


peaceable,  seldom  quarrel  and  stand  confinement 
well.  They  do  well  where  others  would  not  thrive 
for  lack  of  exercise. 

The  Buff  Cochins  are  as  pure  buff  as  any  of 
the  buff  breeds.  This  variety  is  the  most  popular 
of  the  Cochins.  The  fowls  have  an  abundance 


SIT: 

Fig.  13.    Buff  Cochin  hen  (one-seventh  size). 

of  fluffy  feathers  which  enable  them  to  with- 
stand severe  cold  weather.  Their  shanks  are  well 
feathered  on  the  outer  side.  The  middle  and 
outer  toes  are  also  feathered,  while  the  inner 
toes  are  entirely  naked.  They  have  small,  single, 
upright  combs.  They  are  much  admired  by  those 
who  delight  in  large,  gentle,  slow-moving  fowls. 


Langshans  Described  51 

LANGSHANS 

Langshans  are  natives  of  northern  China  and 
were  introduced  into  England  about  a  quarter  of 
a  century  ago.  They  have  not  been  bred  to  a 
great  extent  in  America  until  the  last  few  years. 
They  endure  severe  weather  well,  and  are  said 
to  be  good  winter  layers.  It  is  also  said  that  the 
tendency  to  incubate  is  not  so  great  as  in  the 
Cochins.  The  cock  should  weigh  10  and  the 
hen  7  pounds.  The  Langshans  are  the  small- 
est and  most  active  of  the  Asiatics,  and  more 
nearly  approach  the  general -purpose  fowl  than  do 
the  other  Orientals.  They  have  white  skin  and 
dark  shanks,  while  the  others  have  yellow  skin 
arid  yellow  shanks.  The  quality  of  the  flesh  is 
considered  excellent,  being  fine-grained  for  such 
large  fowls.  They  are  better  foragers  than  the 
Cochins  and  Brahmas .  They  are  somewhat  longer- 
legged  than  the  Brahmas  and  Cochins,  and  con- 
sequently appear  taller  in  proportion  to  their  size. 
Their  leg  feathering  is  less  than  that  of  the  other 
Asiatics. 

Langshans  are  steadily  gaining  in  popularity, 
although  they  will  probably  never  become  so  popu- 
lar as  the  general -purpose  breeds  unless  they 
undergo  a  marked  modification.  They  are  pre- 
ferred by  some  because  they  are  more  active 
than  either  the  Brahmas  or  Cochins, 


52 


Farm  Poultry 


FAVEKOLLE 


This  is  a  class  of  cross-bred  fowls,  not  being 
a  distinct  breed,  but  serving  a  useful  purpose  as 
meat  producers.  It  has  supplanted  the  Houdan 
and  other  French  breeds  in  some  parts  of  France, 


Fig.  14.    Faverolle  cock  (one-eighth  size). 

where  the  production  of  good- sized  young  birds 
for  the  Paris  market  is  the  chief  aim. 

The  Faverolles  were  produced  by  crossing  the 
following  breeds:  Cochin,  Brahma,  Dorking,  and 
Houdan.  They  are  bearded  and  sometimes  have 
a  crest,  frequently  have  five  toes,  and  show  white 
skin  and  light- colored  shanks.  The  shanks  are 


53 


Faverolles 

usually  feathered  unless  the  Dorking  blood  pre- 
dominates, in  which  case  they  are  frequently  bare. 
For  early-rearing  and  quick -growing  chickens  that 
produce  tender  and  juicy  flesh,  the  Faverolles 
are  highly  prized  where  they  are  best  known.  It 

jj^ 


Fig.  15.    Faverolle  hen  (one-sixth  size)., 

is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  flesh  of  the  mature 
birds  is  somewhat  coarse  and  undesirable.  While 
these  fowls  may  become  a  well-established  breed 
and  may  be  highly  prized  for  the  fine  quality  of 
their  meat,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  ever  become 
popular  in  America  as  farm  fowls. 


CHAPTER    IV 

GENERAL  -  PURPOSE  FO IV LS 

As  the  name  indicates,  the  general -purpose 
breeds  include  such  fowls  as  may  profitably  bo 
kept  on  the  farm  for  the  production  of  both  meat 
and  eggs,  particularly  under  the  conditions  that 
require  natural  incubation.  They  are  adapted  to 
common  and  general  conditions.  It  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  term  "general -purpose"  is 
relative  and  is  not  intended  to  express  exact  con- 
ditions. It  is  impossible  to  make  definite  class- 
ifications of  the  various  breeds  of  fowls,  as  some 
breeds  in  the  hands  of  skilled  poultrymen  may 
prove  profitable,  while  in  the  hands  of  an  unskilled 
person  they  would  not  compare  favorably  with  many 
other  breeds  that  really  are  less  productive.  Fowls 
of  all  breeds  and  varieties  lay  eggs,  and  the  flesh  of 
all  fowls  furnishes  good  and  wholesome  food,  yet  all 
breeds  are  not  equally  desirable  for  these  purposes. 

Farmers,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  somewhat 
isolated,  require  fowls  that  are  noted  for  utility 
along  more  than  one  line  of  production.  They 
look  not  only  for  a  fairly  good  egg  production,  but 
also  for  a  body  of  considerable  size  that  will  fur- 

(54) 


"Requirements  of  Farmers  55 

nish  a  good  quantity  of  meat  of  first-class  quality 
for  table  use.  Both  eggs  and  meat  are  of  the 
highest  importance  for  the  practical  farmer,  for 
upon  his  poultry  he  depends  to  a  greater  extent 
than  he  himself  is  aware.  The  quality  of  the 
meat,  as  well  as  its  quantity,  is  to  be  considered. 
Not  only  does  the  farmer  demand  meat  when  the 
fowls  are  mature,  but  the  meat  of  fowls  of  all 
ages  after  the  young  reach  the  broiler  stage  must 
be  of  good  quality.  It  is  vitally  important,  also, 
that  the  fowls  produce  the  greatest  quantity  and 
best  quality  of  meat  from  the  food  consumed ; 
for  some  fowls  eat  much  and  produce  relatively 
little.  Good  layers  are  also  required,  especially 
during  the  winter  months.  Steady  winter  layers 
are  demanded  by  the  farmer  quite  as  much  as  by 
the  poultryman  whose  business  it  is  to  produce 
eggs  for  the  market.  Most  farmers  do  not  expect 
to  consume  all  the  product  of  the  poultry  yard 
at  home.  If  eggs  are  produced  in  good  num- 
bers during  the  cold  weather,  a  high  price  is 
usually  realized  for  them.  A  greater  price  is  real- 
ized from  winter  eggs  than  from  those  produced 
during  the  spring  and  summer  months  when  fowls 
lay  most  abundantly.  It  is  also  desired  that  the 
farm  hen  should  become  "broody,"  incubate  and 
prove  a  good  mother  for  her  young.  Many  farm- 
ers do  not  feel  that  they  can  afford  to  be  bur- 
dened with  the  extra  care  and  study  which  the 


56  Farm  Poultry 

successful  operation  of  the  modern  incubator 
would  incur.  They  therefore  depend  upon  the 
natural  instincts  of  the  fowls  to  provide  incuba- 
tors and  brooders.  Some  of  the  more  noted 
characteristics  of  the  general -purpose  fowls  are 
discussed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Size. — These  fowls  are  usually  of  medium  size; 
that  is,  they  rarely  represent  either  extreme,  al- 
though the  largest  breed— the  Light  Brahmas— 
may,  under  exceptionally  favorable  conditions, 
prove  to  be  fairly  good  farm  fowls.  The  general- 
purpose  fowls,  as  a  rule,  have  blocky,  compact 
bodies,  which  is  one  of  the  requisites  for  meat 
production.  They  are  rarely  long-legged.  They 
are  most  economical  feeders;  that  is,  they  make 
a  good  growth  for  the  food  consumed. 

Disposition. —  Gentleness  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  these  breeds.  The  fowls  are  not  easily 
frightened,  and  are  more  easily  confined  than 
the  breeds  which  are  noted  for  egg  produc- 
tion alone.  They  rarely  attempt  to  use  their 
wings  in  order  to  escape  from  inclosures  of  me- 
dium height.  While  they  may  become  wild  and 
easily  frightened  by  improper  management,  yet 
with  proper  care  they  become  quite  as  docile 
and  tame  as  is  consistent  with  ease  of  manage- 
ment and  profit.  They  occupy  a  medium  position 
between  the  Mediterraneans  and  the  Asiatics  as 
regards  size,  egg  production,  and  docility.  . 


Useful   Qualities  57 

Early  maturity. — These  fowls  are  hardy,  grow 
quickly  and  pass  through  the  delicate  stages  of 
early  life  rapidly.  They  closely  resemble  the  most 
hardy  of  the  noted  egg  breeds  in  this  respect. 
They  are  considered  to  be  hardy  at  all  stages, 
which  is  an  important  point  for  farm  poultry. 
The  many  cares  of  busy  farm  life  during  the 
growing  seasons  of  the  year  sometimes  prevent 
giving  the  fowls  the  close  attention  which  the 
more  delicate  breeds  require  in  order  that  they 
may  be  brought  safely  to  a  stronger  stage  of 
development.  Hardiness  at  all  stages  of  de- 
velopment is,  therefore,  an  important  character- 
istic of  farm  poultry.  Early  maturity  produces 
early -laying  pullets.  The  so-called  general -pur- 
pose breeds  mature  early  and  frequently  produce 
pullets  that  will  lay  at  five  months  of  age. 
Early -hatched  pullets,  as  a  rule,  will  lay  at  an 
earlier  -age  than  those  hatched  later  in  the  sea- 
son. The  early- hatched  fowls  generally  grow 
most  rapidly  and  reach  maturity  in  the  shortest 
time.  Early -hatched  fowls  are  usually  preferred 
for  breeding  as  well  as  for  utility. 

Good  sitters  and  good  brooders.—  While  these 
fowls  are  not  as  persistent  sitters  as  the  Asiatics, 
yet  they  may  be  depended  upon  for  natural  in- 
cubation, particularly  if  the  hens  are  kept  until 
they  are  two  or  three  years  old.  They  make  ex- 
cellent mothers,  as  they  care  for  their  young 


58  Farm 

excellently  and  have  a  great  abundance  of  fluffy 
feathers,  which  enable  them  to  do  their  brood- 
ing well.  They  are  probably  somewhat  better 
sitters  and  brooders  than  the  extremely  heavy 
fowls.  Fewer  eggs  are  likely  to  be  broken  by 
these  careful  birds  than  by  the  larger  and  more 
clumsy  kinds. 

Good  for agers.  —  These  fowls  are  good  fora- 
gers, considering  their  size.  While  they  are  not 
inclined  to  roam  as  far  as  some  of  the  lighter 
and  more  active  breeds,  yet  they  are  well  calcu- 
lated to  seek  their  own  living  when  an  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  them.  The  young  fowls  will 
roam  a  considerable  distance  for  insects  and  green 
food,  and  in  this  respect  they  occupy  a  medium 
position  between  the  active,  nervous  breeds  and 
the  heavy  Asiatics,  approaching  more  nearly  the 
former  than  the  latter. 

Endure  cold  weather  well.— The  compact  body 
and  medium- sized  combs  and  wattles  enable 
the  general -purpose  fowls  to  withstand  the 
severe  weather  of  the  winters.  While  a  frosted 
comb  may  occasionally  result,  yet  they  are  not 
nearly  so  liable  to  injury  by  freezing  as  are  the 
more  noted  egg  breeds.  They  have  a  somewhat 
thicker  coat  of  feathers  and  more  fluff  than  the 
Mediterraneans.  The  thick  coat  of  feathers  gives 
them  a  much  better  protection  than  a  thin  one, 
for  the  reason  that  the  air  space  inclosed  by 


Plymouth  Rocks  59 

a  thick  coat  is  considerably  greater  than  that 
inclosed  by  a  thin  one.  While  they  do  not 
equal  the  Asiatics  in  this  respect,  yet  they  are 
sufficiently  protected  to  withstand  the  rigors  of 
the  northern  winters. 


BARKED    PLYMOUTH    KOCK 

This  variety  probably  originated  in  Massa- 
chusetts something  more  than  forty  years  ago. 
It  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  cross  of  a 
Dominique  cock  and  a  Black  Java  hen.  The 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  combine  largely  the  qual- 
ities of  both  these  breeds.  They  more  nearly 
approach  the  Java  in  size,  but  retain  many  of 
the  good  qualities  of  the  Dominique.  While  they 
do  not  have  the  color  of  either  parent,  yet  they 
more  nearly  approach  that  of  the  Dominique. 
These  fowls  approach  the  Asiatics  in  size,  the 
Leghorns  in  egg  production,  and  constitute  one 
of  the  most  useful  varieties.  They  also  produce 
flesh  of  an  excellent  quality.  It  is  maintained 
by  some  breeders  of  Plymouth  Rocks  that  the 
quality  of  the  flesh  approaches  that  of  the  Dork- 
ing. They  are  blocky  fowls,  have  large,  full, 
plump,  well-proportioned  bodies,  yellow  shanks 
and  skin.  The  flesh  is  of  good  texture  and 
flavor.  The  cock  weighs  9%,  the  hen  7%, 
cockerel  8,  pullet  6%  pounds.  They  are  early 


60 


Farm  Poultry 


maturing,  considering  their  size,  are  good  layers, 
hardy  both  as  little  chicks  and  mature  fowls. 
They  are  excellent  mothers,  kind  and  persistent 
sitters.  The  laying  capacity  is  considerably  above 


Fig.  16.     Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel,  six  months  old 
(one-seventh  size). 

the  average  of  fowls.  Authentic  records  are  re- 
ported of  more  than  two  hundred  and  thirty 
eggs  per  year  from  single  birds.  The  pullets  make 
excellent  winter  layers,  but  for  greatest  egg  pro- 
duction in  the  winter  time  fowls  should  not  be 


Plymouth  Rocks  61 

kept  longer  than  two  years.  They  are  easily 
kept  in  confinement  and  are  adapted  to  nearly 
all  climates.  Probably  no  breed  better  combines 
these  two  qualities  —  egg  -  production  and  the 
yielding  of  a  large  amount  of  good  meat  for 
the  table. 


Fig.  17.     Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hen  (one-seventh  size). 
BUFF    AND    WHITE    PLYMOUTH    ROCK 

The  other  varieties  of  the  Plymouth  Eocks 
are  the  Buff  and  the  White.  In  a  general  way, 
what  has  been  said  of  the  Barred  Plymouth 
Eocks  will  apply  to  all  varieties  of  this  breed, 
although  these  newer  varieties  are  not  quite  so 
well  fixed  as  the  Barred,  It  is  asserted,  how- 


62 


Farm  Poultry 


ever,  that  the  White  Plymouth  Rocks  originated 
as  an  off-shoot  from  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks 
early  in  the  history  of  the  latter.*  The  Plymouth 
Rock  form  predominates  in  all  varieties,  and  the 
solid  colors  have  the  advantage  of  the  Barred 


Fig.  18.    Buff  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel  (one-seventh  size). 

in  mating,  as  often,  with  the  Barred,  the  best 
formed  fowl  will  be  objectionable  on  account  of 
some  imperfection  in  color,  so  that  it  must  be 
discarded  from  the  breeding-pen  if  characteristic 
colors  are  desired. 

*w  Barred   and   White   Plymouth   Rocks,"   by    Wallace, 


Plymouth  Rocks  and    Wyandottes  63 

The  White  variety  is  preferred  by  poultrymen 
who  rear  young  fowls  for  market.  White  fowls 
present  a  better  appearance  when  dressed  than 
colored  ones  do,  particularly  if  the  fowls  are  not 
in  the  most  perfect  condition.  Immature  fowls 
of  all  breeds  and  varieties  have  more  or  less 
undeveloped  feathers,  the  removal  of  which,  in 
colored  varieties,  leaves  a  discoloration  beneath 
the  skin.  On  this  account,  young  birds  of  a 
white  variety  that  are  dressed  for  the  market 
present  a  better  appearance  than  equally  as  good 
birds  of  a  colored  variety.  As  long  as  attrac- 
tive appearance  is  a  desired  quality  in  dressed 
fowls,  white  varieties  will  be  preferred. 

Each  of  the  three  varieties  has  medium-sized 
single  combs.  In  size,  the  combs  and  wattles 
occupy  a  medium  position  between  the  Cochins 
and  the  Mediterraneans.  The  eggs  of  each  va- 
riety are  buff  in  color,  but  vary  considerably  in 
shade. 

WYANDOTTE 

The  Wyandottes  are  not  so  old  as  the  Plymouth 
Rocks.  When  first  introduced,  they  came  at 
once  into  popular  favor,  and  are  now  crowding 
the  Plymouth  Rocks  for  supremacy  as  the  best 
general  -  purpose  fowls.  They  were  recognized  by 
the  American  Poultry  Association  as  a  distinct 
breed  in  1883.  Previous  to  that  time  they  were 


64  Farm  Poultry 

known  and  sold  as  American  Sebrights,  Excel- 
siors, Ambrights,  etc.  They  are  a  little  smaller 
than  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  the  cock  weighing 
8%,  hen  6%,  cockerel  7%,  pullet  5%  pounds. 
They  have  yellow  skin  and  shanks.  As  pro- 
ducers of  broilers  to  weigh  two  pounds  apiece 
they  are  highly  esteemed.  The  hens  are  excel- 
lent sitters  and  make  good  mothers.  In  this  re- 
spect they  closely  resemble  the  Plymouth  Eocks. 
The  Wyandottes  have  a  neat  and  trim  appearance, 
are  good-sized,  produce  excellent  flesh,  and  have 
a  gentle  disposition.  They  are  generally  called 
handsome  fowls.  In  appearance,  they  are  some- 
what neater  than  the  Plymouth  Eocks.  In  ful- 
filling the  demands  of  the  farmer  for  the  eco- 
nomical production  of  both  eggs  and  meat  the 
Wyandottes  are  not  wanting.  Joseph  Wallace 
says,  "It  should  not  be  claimed  that  the  Wyan- 
dottes, in  quality  and  quantity  of  breast  meat, 
equal  the  Dorking,  Houdan  or  Gi-ame."  Neither 
do  they  equal  the  Leghorns  or  the  Minorcas  in 
egg -production,  yet  they  are  excellent  general- 
purpose  fowls.  They  are  called  good  layers  and 
bear  confinement  well.  They  are  hardy,  both  as 
mature  fowls  and  when  young.  They  have  a 
low  rose-comb,  which  makes  them  well  suited  to 
a  cold  country.  They  are  well  feathered  and 
attractive  in  appearance. 

The   object   of    the  originators   of   this   breed 


Wyandottes  65 

was  to  obtain  a  compact,  blocky,  clean-legged 
fowl  of  good  size,  one  particularly  deep  in  the 
breast,  that  should  produce  a  good  number  of 
eggs.  The  results  fully  meet  these  various  re- 
quirements. The  flesh  is  of  a  superior  quality, 
being  tender  and  juicy.  The  proportion  of  bone 


Fig.  19.    A  pair  of  White  Wyandottes,  young  (one-eighth  size). 

to  the  total  weight  of  dressed  fowl  is  compara- 
tively small.  There  are  five  varieties :  the  Silver, 
White,  Black,  Buff,  and  Golden.  The  White  is 
perhaps  the  most  popular  of  any  of  the  varieties. 
They  are  easier  to  breed  to  feather,  being  pure 
white  throughout.  However,  each  variety  has 
many  ardent  admirers.  All  varieties  are  without 
doubt  most  useful  farm  fowls. 


66  Farm  Poultry 

JAVA 

Javas  are  one  of  the  valuable,  useful  breeds 
of  this  country.  They  are  said  to  have  originated 
in  Missouri  something  more  than  forty  years  ago. 
It  is  asserted  that  they  have  been  bred  pure  longer 
than  any  of  the  recently  formed  breeds.  Javas 
are  noted  for  their  good  size,  being  the  same  size 
as  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  are  quick  maturing. 
They  are  of  two  varieties,  the  Black  and  the 
Mottled.  It  is  said  that,  when  cooked,  the  meat 
of  the  Black  variety  does  not  present  the  objec- 
tionable dark  color  of  some  other  black  breeds. 
They  are  good  layers,  perfectly  hardy,  and  are 
easily  reared,  endure  confinement  well,  and  are 
easily  kept  in  inclosures.  It  is  said  that  the  fowls 
breed  quite  as  true  as  any  of  the  breeds  of  this 
class.  They  are  good  winter  layers,  and  the 
chicks  make  good  broilers  at  an  early  age.  They 
are  not  raised  as  extensively  as  some  other  breeds 
of  this  class.  They  are  becoming  more  popular, 
yet  in  this  respect  are  still  far  behind  the  Ply- 
mouth Rocks  and  the  Wyandottes.  The  Black 
variety  has  been  the  most  popular.  This  variety 
is  rich  black  throughout,  with  a  metallic  luster. 
They  have  single  combs,  their  shanks  and  toes 
are  free  from  feathers  but  are  nearly  black  in 
color.  The  Javas  may  be  recommended  as  use- 
ful farm  fowls. 


Dominiques  and  Dorkings  67 

DOMINIQUE 

Dominiques  are  about  the  size  of  the  Wyan- 
dottes,  and  are  compact  and  hardy.  This  is  one 
of  the  oldest  American  breeds.  The  origin  is 
obscure.  The  general  color  is  a  grayish  white, 
with  yellow  shanks,  somewhat  like  the  Plymouth 
Rocks,  yet  the  fowls  are  lighter  in  color.  For  a 
time  they  were  unpopular,  but  are  now  receiving 
attention  and  are  apparently  coming  into  favor. 
They  endure  confinement  well.  It  is  said  of 
them  that  they  change  little  by  in-and-in-breed- 
ing. It  is  also  asserted  that  they  suffer  com- 
paratively little  from  uncleanliness.  They  have 
rose -combs,  and  endure  cold  weather  well.  They 
are  excellent  table  fowls,  good  mothers,  good 
foragers,  mature  early,  and  are  a  most  useful 
farm  breed. 

DOKKING 

The  Dorking  is  preeminently  an  English  breed. 
The  fowls  approach  the  ideal  for  general  purposes. 
They  are  fairly  hardy  if  kept  dry,  although  some- 
what delicate  if  subjected  to  dampness,  particu- 
larly in  cold  weather.  This  is,  without  doubt, 
one  of  the  oldest  of  domesticated  breeds.  It 
is  said  by  some  authorities  that  the  fowls  were 
taken  to  England  by  the  Romans.  They  are  low, 
heavy -bodied  fowls,  with  single  combs.  A  dis- 


68 


Farm  Poultry 


tinguishing  mark  of  the  Dorking  is  the  fifth  toe. 
They  are  good  layers,  persistent  and  careful  sit- 
ters and  good  mothers.  They  are  excellent  farm 
fowls,  especially  prized  for  the  table.  Their 
flesh  is  light-colored  and  of  fine  texture.  Some 
even  hold  that  the  flesh  of  the  Dorking  is  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  Game.  American  breeders 


Fig.  20.    Colored  Dorking  hen,  English,  (one-eighth  size). 

prize  the  Dorkings  highly  for  quality  of  flesh, 
and  also  for  the  small  proportion  of  bone.  They 
are  especially  noted  for  a  broad,  deep  breast,  and 
the  breast  meat  is  distinctly  fine  in  quality.  They 
fatten  easily,  and  stand  confinement  fairly  well, 
although  a  wide  range  in  dry  weather  suits  them 
best.  It  is  said  that  the  hens  remain  longer  with 
the  chickens  than  do  the  hens  of  most  breeds. 


Dorkings 


69 


The  fifth  toe  is  objected  to  by  some  breeders. 
It  is  at  least  a  superfluous  organ  so  far  as  use- 
fulness is  concerned.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the 
prominent  characteristics  of  the  Dorking.  Some 


Fig.  21.    Flock  of  Dorkings,  Acle,  England. 

English  writers,  notably  Wright,  assert  that  those 
varieties  of  fowls  which  have  five  toes  are  more 
afflicted  with  bruised  feet—  "Bumblefoot"—  than 
are  other  varieties. 


70  Farm  Poultry 

HOUDAN 

The  Houdan  is  without  doubt  the  most  popular 
of  French  varieties  that  are  bred  in  the  United 
States.  The  other  French  breeds  are  the  Creve- 
coeur,  the  La  Fleche,  and  the  Faverolles.  The 
latter  are  new  fowls  and  are  practically  unknown 
in  this  country  (see  p.  52).  The  Houdans  rank 
among  the  useful  fowls  and  are  noted  for  the 
production  of  a  goodly  number  of  eggs,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  furnish  a  moderate  quantity  of 
fine  flesh.  The  cock  should  weigh  7  and  the 
hen  6  pounds.  Wright  says  of  them :  "Better 
table  fowls  are  none,  the  laying  powers  are 
great,  the  chickens  fledge  and  grow  faster  than 
almost  any  breed,  and  the  eggs  are  invariably 
prolific." 

The  Houdans  are  crested,  bearded,  and  have 
the  characteristic  fifth  toe.  Notwithstanding  these 
objectionable  characteristics,  they  are  reared  to 
some  extent  for  their  useful  qualities,  but  are  not 
nearly  so  popular  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks  and 
Wyandottes. 

INDIAN    GAME 

These  are  hardy  and  most  excellent  table 
fowls.  They  are  considered  profitable  general- 
purpose  fowls;  are  fairly  good  layers,  mature  rap- 
idly and  are  unexcelled  for  quality  of  flesh.  The 


Indian    Games  71 

hens  are  good  sitters  and  excellent  mothers.  All 
Games  are  close  feathered  and  muscular,  which 
gives  them  a  firm  and  compact  feeling  to  the 
touch.  They  weigh  very  heavily  for  their  appar- 
ent size.  The  thighs  of  Games  are  well-devel- 


Fig.  22.    Indian  Game  cock  (one-ninth  size). 

oped  and  appear  prominent.  The  Indian  Games 
are  represented  by  two  varieties — the  Cornish  and 
the  White  —  and  are  most  highly  prized  as  gen- 
eral-purpose birds.  For  general  farm  use  they 
are  not  so  desirable  as  some  of  the  other  breeds 
discussed  in  this  class.  The  cock  weighs  9 
pounds  and  the  hen  6%  pounds. 


72  Farm  Poultry 

They  are  considerably  more  pugnacious  than 
the  other  breeds  mentioned  in  this  chapter  and 
in  certain  localities  are  highly  prized  on  this  ac- 
count. It  is  said  that  they  suffer  less  from  at- 
tacks of  hawks  than  most  other  breeds. 


Fig.  23.    Indian  Game  hen  (one-sixth  size). 
KHODE     ISLAND     KED 

The  Rhode  Island  Reds  are  considered  to  be  val- 
uable general -purpose  fowls.  They  are  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  Plymouth  Rocks.  A  reliable 
breeder*  who  raises  them  for  utility  says  :  "They 

*C.  J.  Hampton,  Cosad,  N.  Y. 


Rhode   Island   Reds 


73 


are  smaller,  more  active,  and  mature  earlier  than 
the  Plymouth  Rocks.  I  think  them  to  be  excellent 
layers.  In  a  word,  they  occupy  the  middle  ground 
between  the  Leghorns  and  Plymouth  Rocks. 
They  are  hardy,  prolific,  and  furnish  a  good  qual- 
ity of  meat."  They  do  not  appear  to  have  so 
uniform  color  as  is  desired,  but,  without  doubt, 
a  more  uniform  color  will  be  obtained  within  a 
few  years.  As  yet  the  Rhode  Island  Reds  have 
not  been  recognized  as  a  distinct  breed  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association.  They  are,  how- 
ever, highly  prized  as  useful  farm  fowls  by  many 
breeders. 


CHAPTER  V 

FANCY  BREEDS 

WHILE  the  breeds  discussed  in  this  arbitrary 
class  are  more  or  less  useful,  yet  they  are  less 
adaptable  as  farm  fowls  than  those  mentioned  as 
egg  or  general-purpose  breeds.  Fowls  of  these 
breeds  will  undoubtedly  lay  a  good  number  of 
eggs  under  favorable  circumstances,  and  will  pro- 
duce flesh  that  is  excellent  for  food,  yet  they  are  all 
less  important  for  the  furnishing  of  the  useful  prod- 
ucts than  are  the  varieties  mentioned  in  previous 
chapters.  This  class  of  fancy  breeds  includes 
great  variety  as  to  size,  form  and  color.  Some 
of  the  breeds,  in  the  hands  of  skilful  poultrymen, 
would  prove  quite  satisfactory  as  general-purpose 
fowls,  yet,  in  the  hands  of  the  farmer,  under 
ordinary  farm  conditions,  they  are  of  minor  value. 

Nearly  all  kinds  of  fowls  may  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  skilful  breeding  and  management,  and 
undoubtedly  these  so-called  fancy  breeds  could 
be  improved  as  to  useful  qualities  if  given  food 
and  management  conducive  to  that  end.  The 
fact  remains,  nevertheless,  that  the  same  skill  and 
care  transferred  to  other  breeds  will  give  much 

(74) 


Useful   Qualities  of  Fancy  Breeds  75 

greater  returns  in  useful  products  than  can  be 
secured  from  these  breeds  whose  energies  have 
been  expended  in  developing  a  variety  of  charac- 
teristics that  are  highly  prized  for  exhibition  pur- 
poses but  have  little  value  toward  the  production 
of  eggs  and  meat. 

POLISH 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  name  Polish, 
or  Poland,  has  no  connection  with  the  coun- 
try of  that  name.  Charles  Darwin  says  that 
probably  the  name  was  given  on  account  of  their 
elevated  crest  or  poll  just  back  of  the  nostrils  on 
the  top  of  the  head,  where  there  is  an  elevation 
in  the  bony  structure.  These  fowls  have  been 
bred  for  many  years.  It  is  said  that  they  have 
a  known  history  extending  as  far  back  as  the 
sixteenth  century.  They  were  introduced  into 
England  about  1835.  They  are  generally  con- 
sidered handsome  fowls,  but  are  not  noted  for 
hardiness.  They  certainly  cannot  hold  their  own 
in  a  promiscuous  flock.  When  bred  in  small 
flocks  and  given  extra  care  they  are  said  to  pay 
very  well.  They  are  only  fair  layers  of  small 
white  eggs.  They  cannot  withstand  wet  weather 
well,  and  require  extra  care  in  time  of  snow  or 
rain. 

The  very  large  crests,  which  obstruct  their 
sight  to  some  extent,  make  them  a  somewhat  easy 


76  Farm  Poultry 

prey  to  hawks  in  localities  where  these  enemies 
are  numerous.  In  stormy  weather  the  crests  are 
liable  to  become  wet  and  to  cause  inconvenience 
to  the  fowls,  as  well  as  to  make  them  more 
liable  to  take  cold.  On  account  of  their  delicacy, 
small  size,  and  moderate  egg  production,  they  are 
designated  a  fancy  breed. 

They  endure  confinement  quite  well  if  kept  in 
dry  and  clean  houses  and  yards.  Their  flesh  is 
esteemed  for  its  fine  quality.  If  one  desires  a 
few  handsome  fowls,  and  is  willing  to  give  them 
extra  care,  they  will  probably  prove  satisfactory, 
but  they  are  not  practical  for  the  poultry  keeper 
who  desires  to  realize  the  largest  profit  from  the 
production  of  eggs  or  meat. 

Both  sexes  have  large  and  handsome  crests. 
The  comb  of  Polish  fowls  is  peculiar  in  form  and 
differs  materially  from  the  combs  of  the  breeds 
previously  described.  It  is  V-shaped  or  branched 
in  form,  and  is  often  nearly,  or  quite,  hidden  by 
the  crest. 

The  American  Poultry  Association  recognizes 
eight  varieties  of  Polish  fowls,  namely: 

Bearded  Golden,  Golden, 

Bearded  Silver,  Silver, 

Bearded  White,  White, 

Buff  Laced,  White-crested  Black. 

The  shanks  of  all  varieties  are  of  a  slate  or 
bluish  color  and  the  skin  is  white.  Probably  the 


Description  of  Games  77 

Silver,  Golden,  and  White-crested  Black  are  the 
most  popular  varieties. 


GAME 

The  varieties  of  Games  are  especially  noted 
for  the  production  of  flesh  of  fine  quality.  Some 
varieties  are  sometimes  recommended  as  farm 
fowls,  but  on  account  of  their  pugnacious  dis- 
position and  their  deficiency  in  egg  production  it 
is  extremely  doubtful  whether  they  will  prove  as 
useful  as  the  breeds  discussed  under  the  head 
of  general-purpose  fowls  (Chap.  IV). 

For  convenience  of  discussion,  Games  are  usu- 
ally divided  into  two  fairly  well-defined  classes,  the 
Pit  Games  and  the  Exhibition  Games.  The  Amer- 
ican Poultry  Association  still  further  divides  the 
Exhibition  Games  into  two  classes  and  makes  a 
class  of  "Oriental  Games.'7 

The  Pit  Games  usually  are  not  placed  among 
the  standard  varieties,  yet  their  general  char- 
acteristics are  quite  as  distinct  as  are  those  of 
the  so-called  standard  breeds.  Pit  Games  are 
short -legged,  compact,  stout  fowls,  with  an  abun- 
dance of  tail  feathers.  They  are  hardy  and  ma- 
ture early,  but  do  not  produce  eggs  in  sufficient 
number  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  farmer. 

Exhibition  Games  are  taller  and  not  so  com- 
pact or  strong  as  the  Pits  and  are  bred  mostly 


78  Farm  Poultry 

for  exhibition  purposes.  They  are  among  the 
most  popular  of  exhibition  or  fancy  fowls.  The 
classes  of  these  fowls  are  usually  well  filled  at  the 
large  poultry  shows  and  fairs.  They  are  called 
good  sitters  and  good  mothers,  traits  which,  in 
general,  are  common  to  all  Games.  There  are 
eight  recognized  varieties  of  the  Exhibition  Games, 
and  of  these  the  Black-breasted  Red  and  the 
Brown  Red  are  probably  the  most  popular. 

Of  the  Oriental  Games,  the  Cornish  arid  the 
White  Indian  Games  are  bred  most.  These  aie 
fine -looking  fowls.  They  are  much  heavier  than 
the  Pit  or  Exhibition  Games.  They  are  particu- 
larly strong  in  the  shoulders  and  thighs.  They 
are  full  in  the  breast  and  are  highly  esteemed 
for  food.  The  Malay  and  the  Sumatra  Games  are 
other  breeds  of  this  class,  but  are  not  as  popular 
as  the  Cornish  and  the  White.  The  Games  of 
this  class  are  sometimes  used  to  cross  on  other 
fowls  for  the  purpose  of  infusing  vigor  and  of 
improving  the  quality  of  the  flesh. 

SILKY 

The  Silkies  are  not  bred  to  any  extent  in  this 
country,  although  in  England  they  are  in  consider- 
able favor.  Their  great  peculiarity  is  that  their 
feathers  are  not  webbed,  and  when  in  good  con- 
dition present  a  fluffy,  loose  appearance.  Stand- 


Silkies,  Sultans  and  Frizzles  79 

ing  well  out  from  the  body  in  all  directions,  the 
plumage  causes  them  to  appear  much  heavier 
than  they  really  are.  They  are  compactly -built 
birds,  and  are  reared  chiefly  for  their  odd  appear- 
ance, and  for  hatching  the  eggs  of  other  breeds. 
They  are  said  to  make  good  mothers  for  tender 
little  chickens  on  account  of  their  light  weight 
and  soft,  downy  feathers.  They  have  irregular 
rose-combs  of  a  dark  color.  The  comb  and  face 
present  a  dark,  purplish  appearance,  in  marked 
contrast  to  other  varieties  of  fowls. 

SULTAN 

Sultans  were  taken  into  England  from  Turkey 
about  fifty  years  ago.  They  were  not  brought  to 
America  until  many  years  later.  On  account  of 
their  crest  they  somewhat  resemble  the  Polish, 
particularly  the  Bearded  Polish.  Their  shanks 
and  toes  are  heavily  feathered.  They  are  reared 
chiefly  for  their  peculiar  appearance.  No  particu- 
lar claim  is  made  as  to  usefulness.  They  thrive 
well  in  small  inclosures,  and  are  gentle  and  readily 
become  pets. 

FRIZZLE 

Frizzles  are  peculiar  fowls,  and  are  reared  wholly 
for  their  unique  appearance,  their  feathers  curving 
upward  and  backward  at  the  ends.  The  curve  is 


80  Farm  Poultry 

most  pronounced  in  the  hackle  feathers  and  feath- 
ers of  the  back.  Any  color  is  recognized.  Single 
combs  are  preferred.  The  chief  requisite  of  Friz- 
zles is  that  the  feathers  turn  upward  and  toward 
the  head.  On  account  of  this  peculiarity  of  the 
feathers,  they  do  not  well  withstand  unfavorable 
weather.  They  should  not  be  classed  among  the 
most  useful  breeds.  They  are  not  bred  exten- 
sively. Without  doubt  they  might  be  made  more 
useful  than  they  now  are  should  skilful  breed- 
ers give  them  some  attention.  However,  the  fact 
that  they  are  not  prepared  to  withstand  the  hard- 
ships that  more  useful  breeds  endure  will  tend  to 
prevent  them  from  becoming  other  than  fancy 
fowls. 

THE    KUMPLESS    FOWLS 

These  are  distinguished  by  the  entire  absence 
of  a  tail.  In  fact,  that  part  of  the  body  which 
in  other  breeds  produces  the  tail  is  almost  as 
smooth  and  even  as  the  breast.  These  fowls  are 
of  various  colors.  While  they  have  been  bred 
for  many  years,  yet  no  one  has  succeeded  in 
establishing  a  well -fixed  variety.  The  Rumpless 
fowls  have  been  bred  for  many  years  on  farms 
in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  as  general -pur- 
pose fowls,  although  they  have  never  become  very 
popular. 


Description  of  Bantams  81 

BANTAM 

The  Bantams  are  purely  fancy  or  ornamental 
breeds.  There  are  many  varieties.  While  some 
breeders  maintain  that  they  can  be  profitably  kept 
for  eggs  and  for  the  table,  yet  on  account  of  their 
diminutive  size  they  cannot  compete  with  the 
larger  breeds.  As  ponies  represent  the  chil- 
dren's horse  and  are  in  a  way  ornamental,  so  do 
the  Bantams  occupy  a  similar  position  among 
fowls.  They  are  often  reared  as  children's  pets 
and  undoubtedly  afford  a  great  deal  of  pleasure 
for  both  young  and  old.  Among  the  most  com- 
mon and  popular  varieties  of  Bantams  may  be 
mentioned  the  Black,  White,  Bun0,  and  Partridge 
Cochin;  Dark  and  Light  Brahma;  Golden  and 
Silver  Sebright  ;  White-crested  and  White  Pol- 
ish; Buff  L'aced,  Japanese,  and  many  varieties 
of  Games.  Probably  the  Golden  and  the  Silver 
Sebright  and  the  Buff  Cochin  are  quite  as  pop- 
ular as  any. 

For  exhibition  purposes  the  plumage  and  form 
of  these  miniature  representatives  correspond 
closely  to  the  varieties  of  larger  fowls.  Small 
size  is  preferred.  There  seems  to  be  a  marked 
tendency  on  the  part  of  some  varieties  of  Ban- 
tams to  revert  to  the  larger  fowls  from  which 
they  were  derived. 


CHAPTER    VI 

BUILDINGS   FOB    FOWLS:    LOCATION,  PLANS  AND 
CONSTRUCTION 

THE  location  of  poultry  houses  is  often  thought 
to  be  of  minor  importance  when  compared  with 
the  location  of  other  farm  buildings.  This  may  be 
true  when  but  few  fowls  are  to  be  kept  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  supplying  the  home  table,  but 
the  profit  derived  from  keeping  these  few  fowls  is 
frequently  very  much  less  than  it  would  be  if  the 
same  tfare  and  thought  were  given  them  that  is 
devoted  to  other  farm  stock. 

LOCATION    OF    BUILDINGS 

In  selecting  a  site  for  poultry  houses  and 
yards,  three  important  points  should  be  con- 
stantly borne  in  mind:  (1)  health  of  the  fowls, 
(2)  convenience  of  the  attendant,  and  (3)  liabil- 
ity to  vermin  and  other  poultry  enemies. 

Health  of  the  foivls. — As  cleanliness  and  free- 
dom from  moisture  are  two  highly  essential  con- 
ditions of  successful  poultry- keeping,  the  natural 
surroundings  which  strongly  influence  them  should 

(82) 


Necessity  for  Thorough  Drainage  83 

receive  first  consideration.  A  dry,  porous  soil  not 
only  insures  a  suitable  yard  or  run,  whenever  the 
weather  is  favorable  for  the  fowls  to  take  out- 
of-door  exercise,  but  also  controls  to  some  ex- 
tent the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  buildings.  If 
the  highest  degree  of  success  is  to  be  attained, 
cleanliness  and  freedom  from  moisture  must  be 
secured.  Partial  success  or  entire  failure  is  un- 
doubtedly more  frequently  due  to  filthy  houses 
and  yards,  together  with  dampness,  than  to  any 
other  causes.  Particularly  is  this  true  with  those 
whose  chief  interests  lie  in  other  directions,  and 
who,  consequently,  more  or  less  neglect  their 
smaller  poultry  interests  during  certain  portions 
of  the  year.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  poultry  on 
heavy  or  wet  soils,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly 
underdrained.  The  removal  of  the  surplus  water 
from  the  yards  or  runs  very  much  lessens  the 
labor  of  keeping  them  clean,  particularly  during 
the  growing  season.  During  the  summer  months 
a  yard  or  run  of  loose  sand  or  gravelly  soil  will 
require  comparatively  little  labor  to  keep  it  clean, 
while  a  similar  one  on  a  heavy  and  impervious 
clay  will  demand  continual  attention,  and  even 
this  will  not  always  suffice  to  keep  the  yards  in 
a  satisfactory  condition.  A  heavy  soil  not  only 
retains  nearly  all  of  the  droppings  on  the  surface, 
bat  by  retarding  the  percolation  in  times  of  fre- 
quent rains  soon  gives  a  coating  of  filth.  This 


84 


Farm  Poultry 


is  particularly  true  of  those  parts  of  the  yard  most 
frequented  by  the  fowls. 

A  slightly  raised  elevation  is  to  be  preferred, 
particularly  if  the  ground  slopes  gently  on  all 
sides  from  the  building.  This  will  insure  good 
surface  drainage  in  times  of  heavy  showers  and 


Fig.  24.    A  poultry  house  —  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 

whenever  the  ground  is  frozen.  While  a  some- 
what light  or  porous  soil  that  is  naturally  well 
underdrained  is  to  be  preferred,  it  should  not  be 
inferred  that  success  may  not  be  attained  on 
somewhat  heavier  soils  if  they  are  thoroughly 
underdrained.  Any  good  potato  soil  that  is  nat- 
urally well  drained  will  not  be  objectionable  on 
account  of  excessive  moisture. 


Sunshine  Desirable 


85 


Another  important  consideration  is  the  admis- 
sion to  the  houses  and  yards  of  abundant  sun- 
shine. Fowls,  like  other  classes  of  live  stock, 
do  not  thrive  so  well  when  deprived  of  sunshine. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  laying  fowls  during 
the  cold  winter  months.  The  houses,  yards  or 
runs  should  be  so  planned,  if  possible,  as  to  give 


CRUSHLO 
SHELLS 


NESTS   UNDER    BOARDS 

PERCHES 


| 


Fig.  25.    Ground  plan  of  poultry  house  — Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 

them  a  southern  or  southeastern  exposure  (Figs. 
24,  25) .  Many  buildings  for  domesticated  animals 
are  so  constructed  that  they  do  not  admit  sufficient 
light  and  air  for  the  best  health  of  the  occupants. 
It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  animals 
have  a  somewhat  whiter  skin  and  present  a 
somewhat  more  delicate  appearance  when  de- 
prived of  direct  sunlight  than  when  they  are 


86  Farm  Poultry 

permitted  to  bask  in  the  sunshine  at  will.  This 
is  frequently  noticed  in  dairy  cows,  in  which  a 
yellow  skin  is  so  highly  prized. 

Poultrymen  turn  to  good  advantage  all  the 
sunshine  they  can  secure  in  the  winter  time  in 
order  to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  vigor  and 
to  stimulate  egg -production.  It  is  an  advan- 
tage to  have  the  yard  on  the  south  side  of  the 
house,  in  order  that  the  fowls  may  have  the  ben- 
efit of  the  first  dry  ground  in  the  early  spring. 
It  frequently  occurs  in  localities  where  snow  is 
more  or  less  abundant  that  the  ground  on  the 
south  side  of  the  building  will  be  dry  many  days 
before  that  on  the  north  side  is  entirely  free  from 
frost  and  dampness.  The  relative  location  of 
the  house  and  yard  is,  therefore,  of  sufficient 
importance  to  demand  one's  best  thought  and 
care  in  planning. 

Convenience. — The  poultry  business,  if  prop- 
erly conducted,  necessitates  close  attention  to 
many  details,  each  one,  perhaps,  somewhat  in- 
significant in  itself,  yet  of  so  much  importance 
when  considered  in  the  aggregate  that  success  or 
failure  may  depend  on  its  performance  or  neg- 
lect. In  a  general  way,  the  labor  is  not  con- 
sidered heavy  or  burdensome,  but  constant  vigi- 
lance and  attention  are  necessary.  The  mere 
fact  that  there  are  many  small  details  requiring 
attention,  demands  that  convenient  houses  and 


Convenience  of  Appliances  87 

yards  be  built,  since  a  little  inconvenience  each 
day,  or  perhaps  several  times  a  day,  will,  in 
time,  create  an  unnecessary  expense  of  consid- 
erable magnitude.  Economy  of  labor  requires 
convenience  of  appliances,  and  nowhere  is  this 
better  illustrated  than  in  the  poultry  business. 
It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  whenever 
labor  may  be  performed  conveniently  it  is  less 
likely  to  be  neglected  than  when  it  is  performed 
with  difficulty.  While  one  should  not  enter  into 
the  poultry  business  with  the  thought  of  neglect- 
ing any  of  its  details,  or  to  plan  for  any  but 
thorough  work,  yet,  knowing  the  shortcomings 
of  human  operations  and  tendencies,  one  will 
fail  to  make  the  most  of  his  opportunities  if  he 
does  not  consider  the  inclinations  of  those  who 
are  expected  to  perform  the  work.  To  do  the 
work  thoroughly  will  require  a  little  attention 
several  times  a  day.  The  fowls  must  be  fed  and 
watered,  houses  must  be  kept  clean  and  other 
attentions  given.  In  nearly  all  kinds  of  agricul- 
tural work  the  labor  account  is  one  of  the  great- 
est items  of  expense  in  conducting  the  business. 
A  convenient  arrangement  of  houses  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  26.  The  attendant  may  go  from 
one  house  to  another,  passing  through  each  pen 
without  going  through  yards,  which  would  neces- 
sitate opening  and  closing  gates.  It  should  be 
observed  that  each  house  is  provided  with  two 


88 


Farm  Poultry 


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Fig.  26.    A  good  plan  for  poultry  houses  and  yards.     Each  house 
will  accommodate  80  or  100  fowls.    The  yards  are  planted  with  fruit  trees. 

doors,  in  order  that  the  poultryman  may  enter 
one  and  pass  out  at  the  other  in  less  time  than 
would  be  required  if  but  one  door  were  provided. 
This  arrangement,  however,  may  not  be  found  to 
be  applicable  on  many  farms,  particularly  where 
but  one  small  house  is  needed. 

Vermin,  etc. — Rats  and  mice  often  become  seri- 
ous pests  in  poultry  houses,  particularly  if  grain  is 


Enemies  of  Poultry  89 

kept  in  these  buildings.  For  the  same  reason,  it 
is  generally  best  to  locate  the  poultry  houses  some 
distance  from  other  farm  buildings,  particularly 
from  those  in  which  grain  is  stored.  Every  farmer 
well  knows  how  difficult  it  is  to  store  grain  for 
any  considerable  length  of  time  and  keep  it  en- 
tirely free  from  these  pests.  While  convenience 
of  access  is  of  prime  importance,  yet  often 
it  is  best  to  make  a  slight  sacrifice  of  labor  in 
order  to  secure  the  greatest  freedom  from  rats 
and  mice.  Isolated  buildings  will  probably  give 
the  greatest  satisfaction  in  the  end.  Mice  will 
probably  not  be  troublesome  in  poultry  houses 
unless  grain  is  stored  in  these  buildings,  but  rats 
are  likely  to  give  more  or  less  trouble,  particularly 
in  brooder  houses  and  in  pens  or  yards  frequented 
by  young  chickens. 

In  some  localities  crows,  hawks,  skunks  and 
other  poultry  enemies  give  some  trouble,  and 
one  must  plan  to  meet  these  annoyances  ac- 
cording to  his  best  judgment.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary in  some  cases  to  cover  entirely  small  yards, 
in  which  young  chickens  are  kept,  with  netting, 
in  order  to  protect  them  properly  from  hawks 
and  crows.  A  covered  run  for  little  chickens  is 
described  in  the  chapter  on  feeding.  Skunks 
may  be  excluded  by  proper  fencing.  Wherever 
vermin  are  numerous  enough  to  give  serious  an- 
noyance, all  possible  ingenuity  should  be  exer- 


90 


Farm  Poultry 


cised  to  exclude  them  before  resorting  to  destruc- 
tion by  poison.  While  poison  may  sometimes  be 
safely  used,  the  danger  of  poisoning  the  fowls 
and  other  domestic  animals  is  so  great  that  one 
is  not  warranted  in  using  it  except  as  a  last 
resort. 

CONSTKUCTION     OF     HOUSES 

In  designing  poultry  houses,  the  form  is  nec- 
essarily one  of  the  first  points  to  be  determined. 
While  the  design  is  under  consideration,  the 
essentials  of  a  farm  poultry  house  should  be 


Fig.  27.    A  double  house  — Pennsylvania  State  College. 

continually  kept  in  mind.  The  chief  essentials 
may  be  enumerated  as  warmth,  dryness,  light 
and  cheapness.  In  order  to  assure  proper  light- 
ing, it  is  often  found  necessary  to  deviate  some- 


Forms  of  Houses  91 

what  from  the  form  that  would  give  the  greatest 
warmth  for  the  least  cost.  In  all  poultry  houses 
in  which  fowls  are  confined  during  the  cold  win- 
ter months,  some  provision  should  be  made  to 


incurs 
±=& 


J I I I I I        I        I        I 


Fig.  28.     Ground  plau  of  double  houoo —  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

admit  sunlight  on  the  floor,  where  the  fowls 
may  congregate.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  to 
the  best  advantage,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  con- 
siderable frontage  toward  the  south  or  southeast. 
During  December,  January  and  February  it  is 
most  difficult,  yet  most  essential,  to  have  the  di- 
rect sunlight.  Square  or  octagon  houses  inclose 
the  most  space  for  the  money  expended,  and 
also  give  opportunity  for  warm  houses,  which 
may  be  constructed  cheaply,  but  in  order  to  se- 
cure sunlight  it  is  necessary  to  build  the  house 
considerably  longer  than  wide.  For  economy, 
it  is  also  desirable  to  build  a  house  longer 
than  is  necessary  for  one  pen  or  flock  of  fowls. 
A  long  and  comparatively  narrow  house,  with 
light  partitions  constructed  largely  of  netting, 
may  be  erected  for  considerably  less  expense  than 


92  Farm  Poultry 

two  or  more  separate  houses  having  the  same 
capacity.  That  is,  it  is  much  cheaper  to  con- 
struct a  partition  across  a  narrow  poultry  house 
than  to  construct  two  end  walls.  Then,  too,  ad- 
joining poultry  pens,  connected  by  an  easy  swing- 
ing door,  are  more  convenient  for  the  attendant 
than  two  separate  houses.  The  arrangement  of 
having  two  or  more  pens  in  one  building  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  where  warm  houses  must 
be  provided  to  guard  against  frosted  combs  and 
wattles.  See  Figs.  27  and  28. 

In  constructing  poultry  houses,  the  material 
to  be  used  and  the  manner  of  building  will  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  material  at  hand.  In  one 
locality  certain  materials  may  be  comparatively 
cheap,  while  in  other  localities  the  same  articles 
may  be  relatively  more  expensive  than  other  ma- 
terial equally  suitable  for  the  purpose.  In  select- 
ing material,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
building  is  to  provide  a  warm,  dry,  well -venti- 
lated, well -lighted  home  for  the  fowls.  If  these 
requirements  are  satisfactorily  complied  with,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  provide  roof  and  side  walls 
that  are  impervious  to  moisture  and  relatively 
poor  conductors  of  heat.  Suitable  arrangements 
for  ventilating  and  lighting  the  building  must  be 
provided,  and  some  provision  should  be  made  to 
exeJude  the  moisture  from  beneath,  particularly 
if  the  soil  is  damp. 


Fig.  29.    Poultry  houses  — West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Fig.  30.    Poultry  houses  and  yards  —  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 


94  Farm  Poultry 

Size  of  building.  —  The  size  of  the  building 
required  will  depend  largely  upon  the  number  of 
fowls  to  be  kept.  While  fowls  of  some  breeds 
require  more  room  than  the  same  number  of  in- 
dividuals of  other  breeds,  yet  the  number  is  of 
more  importance  than  the  breed  in  determin- 
ing the  size  of  the  building.  The  noted  egg 
breeds  are  much  more  active  than  the  heavier, 
slow -moving  breeds,  and  therefore  require  quite 
as  much  room,  although  in  weight  they  are  far 
inferior. 

The  ^climate  will  determine  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  size  of  the  buildings.  If  the  climate 
is  mild  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the 
fowls  confined  within  doors  much  of  the  time, 
smaller  houses  will  suffice  than  in  colder  latitudes 
where  the  fowls  are  kept  in  the  house  for  weeks 
at  a  time.  In  the  latitude  of  New7  York  city  and 
farther  north,  where  fowls  are  expected  to  be 
kept  within  doors  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
year,  five  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  fowl  will 
suffice  for  most  breeds,  and  it  will  be  none  too 
much  for  best  results.  This  may  be  taken  as 
a  general  rule  when  the  house  is  to  be  kept  in 
good  condition  as  regards  cleanliness  and  venti- 
lation. If  the  houses  are  to  be  more  or  less 
neglected,  considerably  more  space  should  be 
provided. 

It  is   somewhat  more  difficult  to  give  a  good 


Ventilation 


95 


working  rule  as  regards  air  space  or  cubical  con- 
tents of  the  building.  Under  good  average  con- 
ditions, 8  or  10  cubic  feet  per  pound  of  live 
weight  will  perhaps  be  quite  satisfactory.  The 
amount  of  air  space,  of  course,  will  depend  upon 
the  ventilation,  and  also  upon  the  sources  of  con- 
tamination, aside  from  the  fowls  themselves.  If 


Fig.  31.    Poultry  houses— Cornell  University. 

manure  is  allowed  to  accumulate  and  the  litter 
becomes  damp,  the  air  will  become  impure. 
Other  things  being  equal,  it  will  become  im- 
pure sooner  in  small  houses  than  in  large  ones. 
The  above  rule  as  regards  air  space  has  given 
good  satisfaction  under  favorable  conditions  and 
may  be  used  in  the  absence  of  more  definite  infor- 
mation derived  from  actual  experience. 


96  Farm  Poultry 

Foundation.— When  permanent  houses  are  to 
be  built,  it  is  undoubtedly  most  economical,  in 
the  long  run,  to  erect  them  on  foundations  made 
of  brick,  stone  or  concrete.  Such  foundations 
should  extend  into  the  ground  below  the  frost 
line,  should  be  vermin -proof,  and  so  constructed 
as  to  exclude  drafts  of  air.  Some  provision 
should  be  made  to  give  thorough  ventilation 
during  the  warm  seasons  of  the  year,  if  the 
floor  and  its  supports  are  to  be  constructed  of 
wood. 

It  is  not  safe  to  inclose  wooden  floor  supports 
with  solid  walls  of  masonry  on  account  of  the 
liability  of  "dry  rot"  to  destroy  the  supports 
and  even  to  ruin  the  floor.  A  free  ventilation 
should  be  provided  by  means  of  openings  in  the 
foundation  walls  of  all  buildings  when  the  floors 
are  placed  within  a  few  feet  of  the  ground. 

When  wooden  floors  are  constructed  near  the 
ground,  it  is  essential  to  arrange  the  foundation 
walls  so  that  rats  cannot  gain  access  underneath 
the  floor.  This  may  be  readily  accomplished  by 
covering  windows  or  openings  in  the  walls  with 
fine-meshed  wire  screens.  Close-fitting  blinds  may 
be  used  to  close  the  windows  and  prevent  draft 
underneath  the  house  during  the  colder  part  of 
the  year.  If  suitable  stones  are  at  hand  for  the 
construction  of  foundation  walls  they  undoubtedly 
may  be  used  to  good  advantage.  When  neither 


Concrete   Walls  97 

brick  nor  stone  is  readily  available  the  founda- 
tion walls  may  be  made  of  grout  or  concrete, 
provided  small  stone  or  gravel  can  be  readily 
obtained.  On  many  farms  small  field  stones, 
which  prove  a  hindrance  to  cultivation,  may  be 
used  to  good  advantage. 

Walls  of  this  description  may  be  constructed 
without  the  aid  of  skilled  labor  and  at  a  very 
moderate  expense.  In  order  to  construct  such 
walls  satisfactorily,  it  is  necessary  to  dig  narrow 
trenches  below  the  frost  line.  A  simple  and 
effective  manner  of  proceeding  is  as  follows: 
drive  rows  of  stakes  into  the  ground,  one  row 
on  each  side  of  the  trench,  and  nail  boards  on 
the  inside  of  the  stakes.  The  boards  are  used  to 
hold  the  concrete  in  place  until  the  cement  hard- 
ens. Old,  rough  or  uneven  boards  may  be  used, 
except  for  the  top  ones,  which  should  have  the 
upper  edges  straight.  The  upper  boards  should 
be  placed  level,  as  they  will  determine  the  top 
of  the  wall.  The  stakes  which  hold  the  boards 
should  be  firm  enough  to  withstand  the  pressure 
of  the  stones  and  cement  without  yielding  very 
much.  If  the  ground  is  so  hard  that  stakes 
cannot  be  driven  readily,  tall  stakes  may  be  used 
and  supported  by  fastening  the  tops  together  as 
shown  in  Fig.  32.  Place  a  few  layers  of  stone 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  then  put  on  some 
thin  cement,  and  pound  down  by  means  of  a 


98 


Farm  Poultry 


light  pounder.  This  operation  should  be  repeated 
until  the  desired  height  is  reached.  The  top 
may  be  smoothed  off  with  a  ditching  spade  or 
trowel,  using  the  top  board  as  a  guide. 

The  wall  should   be  left  until  the  cement  is 
hard,  when  the  building  may  be  placed  upon  it. 


JTl 


Fig.  32."   Method  of  constructing  a  concrete  wall. 

The  boards  at  the  side  may  be  removed  at  any 
time  after  the  cement  becomes  hard.  If  old 
boards  have  been  used  at  the  bottom  it  will  not 
pay  to  remove  them.  A  concrete  wall  of  this 
kind  may  be  constructed  of  cheap  material  and 
with  ordinary  farm  labor. 

Side  walls.— The  side  walls  of  poultry  houses 
are  usually  built  of  wood,  which  is-  a  compara- 


Kinds  of  Side   Walls  99 

lively  cheap  material  and  is  a  poor  conductor 
of  heat.  The  side  walls  are  constructed  in  va- 
rious ways.  For  convenience  of  discussion  the 
various  kinds  of  walls  may  be  placed  under  two 
heads:  solid  walls  and  hollow  walls.  In  cold 
countries  the  hollow  walls,  or  those  with  a  dead 
air  space,  are  to  be  preferred,  because  of  then- 
greater  warmth  and  freedom  from  moisture.  In 
moderate  or  warm  climates  solid  walls  will  un- 
doubtedly answer  every  purpose. 

For  latitudes  south  of  New  York,  solid  walls, 
constructed  of  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  inch 
boards,  will  prove  quite  satisfactory,  particularly 
in  the  hands  of  the  skilled  poultryman.  The 
amateur  will  undoubtedly  prefer  the  hollow 
walls,  as  imperfect  appliances  and  buildings  are 
greater  hindrances  to  him  than  they  would  be  to 
the  skilled  and  experienced  man.  Buildings  with 
hollow  side  walls  are  cooler  in  summer,  warmer  in 
winter,  and  are  not  so  likely  to  be  covered  with 
frost  in  severe  weather  as  solid  walls,  particularly 
if  the  solid  wall  consists  of  but  one  or  two  thick- 
nesses of  boards.  If  the  side  walls  and  roof 
become  more  or  less  frosted  in  severe  weather, 
dampness  results  whenever  the  temperature  mod- 
erates sufficiently  to  melt  the  frost.  A  cheap  and 
efficient  wall  for  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  build- 
ing may  be  constructed  of  two  thicknesses  of  rough 
inch  lumber.  Both  thicknesses  of  this  siding 


100 


Farm  Poultry 


-Tar  "Paper. 


should  be  put  on  vertically,  with  a  good  quality 
of  tarred  building  paper  between.  When  walls 
of  this  nature  are  con- 
structed, it  is  best  to  nail 
on  the  inner  siding  first. 
On  the  outside  of  these 
boards  put  a  coat  of  the 
tarred  paper  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  whole  sur- 
face is  thoroughly  covered, 
providing  for  a  liberal  lap 
wherever  the  edges  meet.  Fig  33< 

The  object  of  this  tarred  Method  of  building  a 
building  paper  is  to  pre- 
vent drafts  of  air  from 
penetrating  the  side  walls. 
See  Fig.  33.  The  boards 
of  the  outside  covering 
should  be  put  over  the 
building  paper  in  such  a 
way  that  they  will  break 
joints  with  Cemenv 

the   inner  ^oken stone 
boarding. 

If  boards  of  a  uniform  width 
can  be  selected  for  this  pur- 
pose,   the    ease   of    breaking 
joints  will  be  greatly  increased.      A  wall  of  this 
thickness   of   inch   boards,  with   building   paper, 


poultry    house    with 


solid  side  walls,  ce- 
ment floor,  and  a  roof 
that  is  impervious  to 
wind. 


Hollow   Side    Walls 


101 


constructed  as  previously  described,  will  prove 
satisfactory  under  ordinary  conditions.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  these  walls  will  be 
covered  somewhat  with  frost  in  severe  weather, 
particularly  if  the  houses  are  well  filled  with  fowls. 


Fig.  34. 

Method  of  constructing  a  poultry 
house  with  a  hollow  side  wall 
and  a  dead  air  space  between 
ceiling  and  roof. 


A  hollow  wall  may  be  constructed  at  about  the 
same  expense  as  the  solid  wall  just  described. 
One  method  of  constructing  a  cheap  and  effi- 
cient poultry  house  having  hollow  side  walls  is 
shown  in  Fig.  34.  The  sill  may  be  of  2x8  or  2x6 
scantling,  laid  flat  on  the  foundation  wall.  A  2x2 
scantling  or  strip  is  nailed  on  top  of  the  sill,  at 


102  Farm  Poultry 

its  outer  edge.  This  gives  the  width  of  the  space 
or  hollow  in  the  side  walls.  The  plate  may  be 
constructed  of  a  2x3  or  2x4  scantling,  placed 
edgewise.  The  boards  which  constitute  the  side 
walls  are  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  plate  and 
to  the  sides  of  the  strip  which  was  nailed  to  the 
top  of  the  sill.  Rough  lumber  may  be  used  for 
the  side  walls,  if  strict  economy  is  desired.  The 
inner  boarding  should  be  nailed  on  first  and  cov- 
ered on  the  outside  with  tarred  building  paper. 
This  paper  will  be  within  the  wall  when  it  is 
completed.  It  is  preferable  to  fasten  the  paper 
in  place  by  means  of  thin  strips,  laths,  pieces  of 
thin  boards,  etc.,  rather  than  to  depend  wholly 
on  the  heads  of  tacks  or  nails.  The  outside  board- 
ing may  now  be  put  on,  and  the  cracks  between  the 
boards  covered  with  inexpensive  battens,  if  they 
are  secured  with  small  nails  at  frequent  intervals. 
If  cheapness  is  of  considerable  importance,  the 
ordinary  building  laths  may  be  used,  and  will 
answer  the  purpose  admirably,  although  some- 
what heavier  battens  will  be  more  durable.  A 
mistake  is  sometimes  made  in  selecting  heavy 
battens  which  will  not  draw  down  by  nailing  as 
well  as  lighter  ones.  The  battens  on  the  outside 
boarding  and  the  tarred  building  paper  on  the 
inside  boarding  make  two  coverings,  each  of 
which  is  impervious  to  wind,  with  an  air  space 
between  them. 


Economy  of  Roof  Construction 


103 


Eoofs.— Various  kinds  of  material  are  used  in 
the  construction  of  roofs  for  poultry  houses,  al- 
though shingles  are  more  generally  employed  than 
anything  else.  Tin,  steel,  and  various  kinds  of 
roofing  paper  are  used,  although  they  are  more 
or  less  objectionable  on  account  of  the  great  heat 


T 


96  Sq.Ft. 


Fig.  35.    Cross  section  of  a  poultry  house  with  a  gable  roof,  96  square  feet. 

radiated  in  the  building  during  the  hot  summer 
months. 

Roofs  of  various  forms  are  constructed.  The 
gable  and  lean-to  or  shed  roofs  are  used  most. 
A  shed  roof  may  be  constructed  with  a  trifle 
less  labor  than  a  gable  roof,  yet  it  is  not  nearly 
so  economical  in  the  matter  of  space  as  the  latter. 
At  first  thought  a  shed  roof  may  seem  to  include 


104  Farm  Poultry 

the  most  space,  but  upon  closer  analysis  it  will 
be  found  that  the  gable  roof,  other  things  being 
equal,  includes  considerably  more  space.  To 
further  illustrate,  we  will  suppose  that  boards 
twelve  feet  long  are  to  be  used  for  the  side  walls 
in  constructing  a  house  twelve  feet  wide,  the  roof 
to  be  one -third  pitch.  If  the  gable  form  be  used 


Fig.  36. 

Cross  section  of  a 
poultry  house  with 
a  shed  roof,  72 
square  feet. 


the  building  would  then  have  side  walls  six  feet 
high,  and  the  area  included  in  cross  section  would 
be  96  square  feet.  See  Fig.  35. 

If  the  shed  form  of  roof  be  used  and  the  same 
material  as  described  above  for  side  walls,  but  72 
feet  in  cross  section  would  be  included.  See  Fig. 
36.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  shed  roof  may 
be  constructed  at  a  trifle  less  expense  for  labor 


Method  of  Preventing  Drafts  105 

than  the  gable  roof,  although  it  will  be  found 
necessary  to  use  somewhat  heavier  rafters  than 
would  suffice  for  the  gable  roof. 

Whatever  form  of  roof  be  used,  it  should  be  so 
constructed  that  it  will  effectually  exclude  all  drafts 
of  air.  Shingled  roofs,  as  ordinarily  constructed,  do 
not  sufficiently  exclude  drafts.  In  order  to  make 
such  roofs  satisfactory  it  is  necessary  to  cover 
the  roof  boards  with  building  paper  before  the 
shingles  are  laid,  or  to  provide  'an  inner  ceiling 
for  the  poultry  house.  Either  of  these  will  ex- 
clude the  drafts,  but  both  are  more  or  less  ob- 
jectionable. Each  one  must  choose  what  seems 
to  him  to  be  the  lesser  of  the  two  evils.  The 
building  paper  underneath  the  shingles  prevents 
the  shingles  from  drying  as  readily  as  they  other- 
wise would,  and,  consequently,  materially  short- 
ens the  life  of  the  roof.  Experience  has  taught 
that  the  shingled  roofs  that  dry  quickest  last 
longest.  The  ceiling  on  the  inside  of  the  ordi- 
nary shingled  roofs  is  objectionable  on  account 
of  the  additional  expense. 

Floors. — Some  successful  poultry  keepers  pre- 
fer earth  floors  to  artificial  ones,  but  as  these  are 
somewhat  more  difficult  to  keep  clean  many  prefer 
an  artificial  floor  constructed  of  wood  or  cement. 
Wooden  floors  are  generally  used,  although  they 
are  somewhat  more  expensive  to  construct,  and 
it  is  often  necessary  to  replace  them  every  few 


106  Farm  Poultry 

years.  The  "submerged  cement  floor"  undoubt- 
edly approaches  the  ideal.  In  constructing  this 
floor  the  ground  should  be  slightly  excavated  so 
that  the  top  of  the  cement  floor  when  finished 
will  be  a  trifle  lower  than  that  desired  for  the 
fowls.  The  cement  may  be  placed  directly  on 
the  ground  if  the  earth  is  firm.  If  the  earth  is 
not  firm  it  should  be  further  excavated  and  filled 
with  stone,  which  should  be  thoroughly  pounded 
before  applying  the  cement.  See  Fig.  33.  After 
the  cement  hardens,  sand  or  gravel  may  be  used 
to  cover  it  to  a  depth  of  from  one  to  three 
inches.  Some  poultrymen  prefer  to  place  the 
cement  floor  somewhat  higher  than  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  order  to  secure  good  drainage,  de- 
pending on  litter  to  protect  the  fowls  from  coming 
in  contact  with  the  cement  when  the  weather  is 
cold.  A  cement  floor  properly  constructed  is  a 
most  excellent  protection  against  rats  and  mice. 
Windows. — For  the  colder  latitudes,  windows 
should  not  be  large,  nor  more  than  one  to  every 
ten  feet  in  length  for  a  house  twelve  feet  wide. 
These  should  be  placed  on  the  south  side  and 
at  such  distance  from  the  floor  as  to  allow  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  sunshine  to  fall  upon 
the  floor  during  the  cold  winter  months.  Of 
course  the  size  and  form  of  the  windows  will 
determine  largely  their  location,  but  if  ordinary 
windows,  having  from  four  to  eight  lights  of  a 


Windoivs  107 

size  not  larger  than  8x10  inches,  are  used,  it  will 
be  found  very  satisfactory  to  place  them  about  six- 
teen or  eighteen  inches  from  the  floor.  At  noon, 
during  the  shortest  days  of  the  year,  in  the  lati- 
tude of  New  York  city,  the  sun's  rays  make  about 
the  same  angle  with  the  horizon  as  that  of  a  quar- 
ter pitch  roof;  that  is,  an  object  one  foot  high 
would  cast  a  shadow  two  feet  long.  Then,  if  the 
bottom  of  the  window  be  placed  eighteen  inches 
from  the  floor,  the  sunshine  on  the  floor  will  be 
three  feet  from  the  side  of  the  building  in  which 
the  window  is  placed.  In  cold  latitudes  it  is  a 
common  and  somewhat  serious  mistake  to  use 
more  windows  than  are  absolutely  needed  for  the 
health  and  convenience  of  the  fowls.  While  sun- 
light is  desirable,  many  windows  make  the  build- 
ing cold,  unless  they  are  covered  with  shutters  or 
heavy  curtains,  during  the  severest  weather.  It 
has  been  found  that  windows  radiate  about  four 
times  as  much  heat  as  the  same  area  of  side  walls 
in  average  well -constructed  dwelling  houses.  If 
warm  houses  are  desire.d  large  window  surface 
should  be  avoided.  A  coat  of  whitewash  on  the 
interior  will  aid  materially  in  making  the  build- 
ing light. 

Sliding  windows  are  preferred  on  many  ac- 
counts to  those  that  open  by  means  of  hinges. 
They  can  be  partially  opened  for  ventilation  in 
warm  weather,  and  during  the  extreme  heat  of 


108 


Farm   Poultry 


summer  they  may  be  left  entirely  open.  The 
opening  should  be  covered  with  poultry  netting 
to  confine  the  fowls,  and  if  the  mesh  is  fine 


Fig.  37.    Window  of  poultry  house  protected  by  a  wooden  shutter 
for  summer  use. 

enough   to  exclude  the   English  sparrow,  annoy- 
ance is  sometimes  avoided. 

Comparatively  cheap   window  shades   may  be 


/       ^g>f  THE          ^V 

(  UNIVERSITY   1 

Windows  and    Ventilators  ^J  109 

made  of  thin  matched  lumber  nailed  together  so 
as  to  make  a  solid  shutter.  This  shade  or  shut- 
ter may  be  hinged  to  the  side  of  the  poultry 
house  just  above  the  window  with  loose  hinges, 
the  lower  edge  supported  by  a  wire,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  37.  Such  shades  exclude  the  sun  and  serve 
as  a  protection  from  the  heat  during  the  warm- 
est part  of  the  year  when  the  windows  are  left 
open.  The  loose  hinges  permit  of  easy  removal 
for  winter  storage. 

Ventilation. — During  the  warm  weather  the 
open  windows  will  afford  sufficient  ventilation, 
but  during  the  colder  months  some  means  of  ven- 
tilating the  building  should  be  provided,  aside 
from  that  afforded  by  the  doors  and  windows. 
Many  ventilators  have  been  planned  for  poultry 
houses,  but  all  ventilators  that  are  in  continu- 
ous operation  either  give  too  much  ventilation 
during  the  coldest  weather  or  not  enough  during 
the  warm,  still  days.  As  a  rule,  they  furnish 
too  much  ventilation  during  the  cold  nights, 
and  not  enough  during  the  sunny  part  of  the 
day.  Any  system  of  ventilation  that  will  fully 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  busy  farmer  or 
poultryman  must  be  simple  and  readily  con- 
trolled by  the  attendant.  Ventilators  are  not 
needed  in  the  severest  weather,  but  during  the 
warm  days  of  spring  and  whenever  the  tempera- 
ture is  above  the  freezing  point  during  the  winter 


110 


Farm  Poultry 


and  early  spring,  some  ventilation  should  be 
given.  Farmers  and  poultry  men  should  aim  to 
ventilate  their  poultry  houses  as  they  ventilate 
their  own  sleeping  apartments.  Little  or  no 
ventilation  is  needed  at  night  during  the  severest 
weather,  but  during  the  day,  when  the  fowls  are 
more  or  less  actively  engaged  in  scratching  in 
the  litter,  the  house  should  be  ventilated  just  as 


Fig.  38.    A  good  ventilator. 

regularly  as  a  sleeping  apartment  should  be  aired 
when  not  occupied  or  when  the  occupant  is  ac- 
tively engaged  in  light  manual  labor.  Houses 
with  single  walls  will  become  quite  frosty  on 
the  inside  during  the  severest  weather,  and  this 
will  cause  more  or  less  dampness  whenever  the 
temperature  is  sufficiently  high  to  thaw  the  frost 
from  the  walls  and  roof.  At  this  time  ventilation 
is  most  needed  and  may  be  supplied  by  placing 


Ventilators  111 

a  N  ventilator  in  the  highest  part  of  the  roof, 
which  will  permit  the  heated  air  to  escape.  It 
is  rarely  necessary  to  provide  special  means  for 
cold  air  to  enter,  as  there  is  usually  a  sufficient 
number  of  cracks  about  doors  and  windows  to 
admit  cold  air  if  means  be  provided  for  the  lighter 
air  to  escape.  Fig.  38  illustrates  the  construc- 
tion of  a  cheap  and  effective  ventilator.  This 
may  be  readily  closed  and  opened  by  means  of 
cords  or  chains  as  the  attendant  passes  through 
the  house. 


CHAPTER   VII 

BUILDINGS:    INTERNAL  ARRANGEMENTS  AND    TARDS 

Perches. — While  the  construction  of  the  perches 
is  perhaps  of  less  importance  than  many  other 
details  of  a  well-equipped  poultry  house,  yet  one 
should  be  able  to  give  a  reason  for  construct- 
ing each  part  of  the  house  in  a  particular  way, 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  considerable 
thought  to  the  planning  and  arrangement  of 
minor  features.  In  the  construction  of  perches 
two  objects  should  be  kept  in  mind:  (1)  the 
perches  should  be  convenient  for  the  fowls  and 
(2)  so  arranged  that  the  droppings  may  be  read- 
ily caught  without  falling  to  the  floor  or  soiling 
the  litter.  For  heavy- bodied  fowls  the  perches 
should  not  be  more  than  2%  or  3  feet  from  the 
floor,  and  all  should  be  of  the  same  height. 
Many  fowls  prefer  to  perch  far  above  the  ground 
in  order,  without  doubt,  to  be  more  secure  from 
their  enemies.  It  may  be  accepted  as  natural 
for  fowls  to  perch  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  ground  in  order  that  they  may  be  better 
protected  from  skunks,  minks,  foxes,  etc.  In  the 
poultry  house,  from  which  these  enemies  are  ex- 

(112) 


Construction  of  Perches  113 

eluded,  however,  low  perches  are  considered  just 
as  safe  and  much  better  for  heavy-bodied  fowls. 
More  or  less  clumsy,  heavy-bodied  fowls  ascend 
to  high  perches  with  difficulty,  and  are  likely  to 
be  injured  in  alighting  from  any  considerable 
elevation.  Convenient  ladders  or  walks  may  be 
constructed,  which  will  enable  the  fowls  to  ap- 
proach the  perches  without  great  effort,  but  there 
are  always  times  when  clumsy  fowls  will  attempt 
to  fly  to  the  floor,  although  injury  to  themselves 
may  result.  Leghorns  and  other  egg  breeds  may 
safely  perch  somewhat  higher  than  the  Asiatics, 
and  if  the  buildings  are  well  constructed  this 
may  be  an  advantage  in  cold  weather,  as  the 
fowls  will  undoubtedly  find  it  somewhat  warmer 
on  high  perches  than  on  low  ones.  Only  mov- 
able perches  should  be  constructed.  A  2  x  3 
scantling  set  edgewise,  with  the  upper  corners 
rounded,  answers  every  purpose  and  makes  a 
satisfactory  perch.  Poles  or  narrow  boards  may 
be  used,  but  whatever  material  is  selected  the 
perches  should  be  so  constructed  that  they  will 
be  firm  and  will  not  tip  or  rock  when  fowls 
alight  on  them.  A  small  scantling  is  easy  to 
secure  firmly  and  also  to  clean  and  to  disin- 
fect. Underneath  the  perches  a  smooth  platform 
should  always  be  placed  to  catch  the  droppings, 
This  is  recommended  for  two  reasons:  first,  it 
is  much  easier  to  keep  the  house  clean  and  free 


114 


Farm  Poultry 


from  objectionable  odors  if  the  droppings  are 
easily  removed;  and,  second,  the  droppings  are 
valuable  as  a  fertilizer  and  should  not  be  mixed 
with  the  litter  on  the  floor.  The  distance  from 
the  perch  to  the  platform  will  depend  somewhat 
on  the  size  of  the  fowls  and  on  the  implement 


Fig.  39.     Movable  perches  with  board  platform  underneath  to  catch  droppings. 

used   in  removing   the   droppings.     It  will   also 
depend  on  the  form  of   platform   constructed. 

The  distance  between  the  perches  and  a  level 
platform  should  not  be  great  enough  to  permit 
the  fowls  to  walk  on  the  platform  underneath  the 
perches.  If  a  broad  iron  shovel  with  a  tolerably 
straight  handle  is  used,  the  perches  need  not  be 
more  than  from  five  to  eight  inches  from  a  level 


Perches   and   Nests  115 

platform.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  platform 
some  distance  from  the  floor,  in  order  that  the 
fowls  may  occupy  the  floor  space  underneath  the 
platform.  This  will  permit  the  construction  of 
perches,  and,  at  the  same  time,  will  allow  the 
fowls  to  use  all  of  the  floor  space.  The  perches 
may  be  supported  by  brackets  secured  to  the 
side  wall,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39. 

Nests. — In  the  construction  of  nests  in  poultry 
houses,  at  least  three  points  should  constantly  be 
kept  in  mind.  First,  the  nest  should  be  situated 
in  a  place  which  is  more  or  less  dark;  second, 
it  should  be  readily  accessible  to  the  fowls  from 
more  than  one  side;  and,  third,  it  should  be 
constructed  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  readily 
seen,  easily  cleaned,  and  thoroughly  disinfected. 
Since  it  is  important  to  give  the  fowls  as  much 
floor  space  as  possible,  it  is  usually  best  to  have 
the  nest  attached  in  some  manner  to  the  side  or 
end  walls  of  the  building.  In  a  general  way  it 
may  be  said  that  the  number  of  fowls  which  a 
poultry  house  will  accommodate  depends  on  the 
floor  space  and  air  space  which  the  house  con- 
tains. Anything,  therefore,  that  unnecessarily 
occupies  floor  space  will  diminish  the  capacity 
of  the  house.  Various  plans  of  arranging  nests 
have  been  adopted,  and  it  is  difficult  and  probably 
impossible  to  say  which  is  the  best.  Each  has 
advantages  and  disadvantages.  A  somewhat  sim- 


116  Farm   Poultry 

pie  and  easy  plan  of  arranging  nests  when  the 
perches  are  placed  not  more  than  2%  or  3  feet 
from  the  floor,  is  as  follows:  underneath  the 
platform,  which  should  always  be  underneath  the 
perches,  as  described  above,  the  nests  are  placed 
in  a  row  on  the  floor.  From  the  front  edge  of 
the  platform  to  the  floor,  in  front  of  the  nests, 
a  tight  board  partition  is  constructed.  This  board 
partition  is  opened  by  means  of  a  long  door, 
hinged  either  at  the  top  or  bottom.  In  either 
case  the  lower  edge  of  the  door  should  be  about 
level  with  the  top  of  the  nests.  A  small  open- 
ing at  one  end  of  the  door  will  admit  fowls 
to  the  nests.  This  arrangement  secures  dark- 
ness for  the  nests,  plenty  of  room  for  the 
fowls  to  approach  the  nests  from  two  or  three 
sides,  and  the  nests  are  readily  accessible  for 
cleaning,  gathering  eggs,  etc.  Some  of  the  dis- 
advantages of  this  plan  are  that  the  nests  oc- 
cupy considerable  floor  space  and  the  fowls  are 
sometimes  inclined  to  deposit  their  eggs  on  the 
floor  back  of  the  nests.  It  is  desirable  to  arrange 
the  nests  so  that  they  may  be  approached  from 
more  than  one  side  for  the  following  reason:  in 
flocks  of  fowls  of  any  considerable  size  there 
are  usually  individuals  more  or  less  aggressive  in 
character,  that  seem  to  delight  in  exercising  their 
mastery  over  others;  such  birds,  when  seeking 
a  nest,  will  almost  invariably  drive  others  off 


Nests,   and   Egg -eating 


117 


the  nests  rather  than  take  equally  as  conve- 
nient a  nest  which  is  unoccupied.  If  the  nests 
can  be  approached  from  only  one  side,  one  hen 
in  trying  to  drive  the  other  off,  which  she  will 
eventually  accomplish,  will  force  the  occupant 
to  spring  from  the  nest  suddenly.  This  may 


Fig.  40.    Perches  and  nests,— West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

cau.se  the  eggs  to  be  thrown  violently  to  one  side, 
and  often  a  broken  egg  is  the  result. 

The  vice  of  egg- eating  is  undoubtedly  largely 
caused  by  eggs  being  broken  accidentally,  or  by 
frozen  eggs.  If  the  nests  can  be  placed  in  partial 
darkness,  the  habit  of  egg-eating  should  be  reduced 


118  Farm  Poultry 

to  a  minimum.  While  it  may  not  suffice  to  cure  the 
habit  when  once  well  formed,  yet  it  should  pre- 
vent, in  a  large  measure,  the  development  of  this 
vice.  It  is  the  duty  of  those  constructing  poultry 
houses  to  arrange  them  so  that  this  vice,  together 
with  other  undesirable  features  of  poultry-keeping, 
may  be  avoided  so  far  as  possible.  Another  ar- 
rangement of  nests,  in  which  they  are  attached 
to  the  side  or  end  walls,  and  therefore  do  not 
occupy  floor  space,  is  recommended  by  many 
practical  poultry-keepers. 

It  is  important  to  arrange  the  nests  so  that 
they  may  be  readily  cleaned  and  disinfected,  for 
it  is  well  known  that  if  the  perches  and  nests  of 
the  fowls  can  be  kept  free  from  mites,  or  so- 
called  summer  lice,  the  fowls  themselves  will  be 
entirely  free  from  them.  If  the  nest  boxes, 
therefore,  are  movable  and  can  readily  be  taken 
out  of  doors  for  thorough  cleaning  it  will  be 
found  somewhat  easier  to  keep  them  entirely  free 
from  these  pests  than  if  stationary  nests  -are 
used,  and  it  will  certainly  be  easier  to  exter- 
minate them  should  they  once  gain  a  foothold. 

Nests  of  Leghorns,  Hamburgs,  and  Minorcas 
may  be  constructed  of  boards,  six  inches  wide, 
making  boxes  8x10  inches  in  the  clear.  The 
American  breeds  and  Asiatics  should  have  some- 
what larger  nests . 

Fine  hay  is  satisfactory  for  nest  material  and 


Nests,  and  Drinking  Fountains  119 

excelsior  answers  the  purpose  admirably.  Sea- 
grass,  so  extensively  used  in  packing  china  and 
crockery,  is  an  excellent  material.  Whatever  ma- 
terial is  used,  it  should  be  such  as  will  not  easily 
stain  the  eggs.  An  egg  when  first  laid  is  moist,  and 
if  the  nest  material  staijis  or  gives  up  its  coloring 
matter  readily,  the  egg  is  likely  to  be  more  or  less 
stained,  particularly  if  it  has  a  white  shell.  If 
the  nests  are  placed  side  by  side,  the  partitions 
should  extend  two  inches  or  more  above  the  nest 
material  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  attempting  to 
draw  the  eggs  from  one  nest  to  another,  and,  in 
so  doing,  cause  the  eggs  to  roll  back  and  be 
broken. 

Drinking  fountains. — It  is  of  tne  utmost  im- 
portance that  fowls  be  supplied  with  pure  water. 
This  is  one  of  the  somewhat  difficult  problems 
that  every  poultry  man  has  to  meet.  It 
is  difficult  to  keep  the  water  dishes 
clean,  particularly  when  the  fowls  are 
confined  in  the  houses,  as  they  are  dur- 
ing the  severe  winter  months.  Scratch- 
ing in  the  litter  will  cause  more 
or  less  dirt  to  enter  the  drink- 
ing dishes,  and  usually  such 

„        ,  c     ,          £,     „        ,  Fig.  41.    A  simple  drinking 

lowls  are  ted  sort  rood  once  a      fountain;  a  bottle  or  jug 
day  at  least,  and  this  food  will      used  as  a  reservoir- 
also  enter  the  drinking  dishes  to  some  extent  when 
the  fowls  drink  after  eating.    There  are  a  number 


120 


Farm  Poultry 


of  patented  drinking  fountains  on  the  market, 
many  of  which  are  automatic  and  keep  a  small 
supply  of  water  constantly  before  the  fowls. 
Under  favorable  conditions  these  fountaios  will, 
undoubtedly,  prove  very  satisfactory.  Under  ad- 
verse conditions,  however, 
some  of  them  have  not 
given  satisfaction,  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  diffi- 
cult to  clean.  If  the  foun- 
tain becomes  tainted,  as  it 
is  very  likely  to  do  in  warm 
weather,  it  is  not  so  readily 
cleaned  as  a  simple  tin  or 
earthed  dish.  Drink- 
ing fountains  that  are 
not  readily  cleaned  are 
obj  ectionable .  Many 
automatic  fountains  are 
constructed  on  the  principle  of  the  student  lamp, 
which  permits  a  small  quantity  of  liquid  to  pass 
from  the  reservoir  whenever  a  bubble  of  air  is 
permitted  to  enter  it.  The  inverted  jug  or  bottle, 
with  its  opening  placed  in  a  shallow  dish,  illus- 
trates the  principle.  See  Fig.  41.  An  improved 
arrangement  is  seen  in  Fig.  42.  The  reservoir  is 
supported  between  two  uprights  and  so  arranged 
that  it  may  revolve  for  convenience  in  filling. 
Another  arrangement,  which  has  given  satisfa0- 


Fig.  42.    An  improved  drinking  fountain 
with  a  revolving  reservoir. 


Drinking  Fountains 


121 


tion  in  the  hands  of  successful  poultrymen,  may 
be  constructed  as  follows  (Fig.  43) :  an  ordinary 
shallow  milk  pan  is  placed  on  a  block  or  shallow 
box,  the  top  of  which  is  four  or  five  inches  from 
the  floor.  The  water  or  milk  to  be  drunk  by  the 
fowls  is  placed  in  this  pan.  Over  the  pan  is 
placed  a  board  cover  supported  on  pieces  of  lath 
about  eight  inches  long  nailed  to  the  cover  so 
that  they  are  about  two  inches  apart,  the  lower 
ends  resting  on  the  box  which  forms  the  support 
of  the  pan.  In  order  to  drink  from  the  pan,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  fowls  to  insert  their  heads  be- 
tween these  pieces  of  lath.  The  cover  over  the 
pan  and  the  strips  of  lath  at  the  sides  prevent  the 
poultry  from  fouling 
the  water  in  any  man- 
ner except  in  the  act 
of  drinking.  When 
drinking  pans  of  ^ 
this  kind  are  used, 
it  is  very  easy  to 
cleanse  and  scald 
them  with  hot 
water  as  occasion  demands.  This  arrangement 
can  be  carried  a  little  further  by  placing  a  pan 
or,  what  would  be  still  better,  a  long,  narrow 
dish,  something  like  a  tin  bread -tray,  on  a  low 
shelf  a  few  inches  from  the  floor  and  hinging  the 
cover  to  one  side  of  the  poultry  house  so  that 


Fig.  43.  A  shallow  milk  pan  used  as  a 
water  basin,  and  protected  with  a  board 
cover  having  supports  of  laths. 


122  Farm  Poultry 

it  can  be  tipped  up  in  front  for  the  removal  of 
the  dish  or  for  filling  it  with  water.  See  Fig.  44. 
Whatever  arrangement  is  made  for  furnishing 
water  for  the  fowls,  it  should  comply  with  these 
conditions  :  (1)  the  drinking  pan  must  be  so 
constructed  that  it  may  be  easily  and  thoroughly 


Fig.  44.    A  protected  water  basin. 

cleansed;    (2)   fowls  should  have   access  to  pure 
water  at  all  times. 

Dust  boxes. — It  is  not  only  desirable,  but  nec- 
essary, to  provide  dust  boxes  for  the  fowls  if  they 
are  to  be  kept  reasonably  free  from  body-lice. 
This  is  particularly  true  during  the  winter  months. 
During  the  summer,  if  the  fowls  have  a  more  or 
less  wide  range,  dusty  places  will  be  found  out  of 
doors  wherein  they  may  take  dust  baths.  During 
the  late  fall,  winter  and  early  spring,  conveniences 
should  be  supplied  the  fowls  within  doors,  wherein 


Dust  Baths 


123 


they  may  wallow  in  the  dust.  A  comparatively 
small  box  will  answer  for  a  flock  of  a  dozen  or 
twenty  hens  if  the  attendant  will  see  that  the  box 
is  kept  well  filled  with  dry  dust  and  free  from 
litter  and  other  coarse  material.  If  these  boxes 
can  be  so  placed  that  they  receive  some  sunshine 
on  bright  days  it  will  be  found  easier  to  keep  the 


Fig.    45.    Combined  house  and  scratching  shed,  an  excellent  plan. 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  College. 

dust  dry,  and  fowls  prefer  them  so  located  rather 
than  in  some  dark  corner.  Fine  road  dust  pro- 
cured during  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  July  and 
August  from  a  much -traveled  highway  has  no 
superior  for  this  purpose.  Probably  there  is  no 
way  in  which  the  poultryman  can  better  combat 
the  body -lice  than  by  providing  dust  boxes  for 
his  fowls.  It  is  true  that  the  fowls  may  be  kept 
comparatively  free  from  these  pests  by  the  occa- 
sional use  of  insecticides  dusted  thoroughly  among 


124  Farm  Poultry 

the  feathers  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body,  but 
as  this  method  necessitates  the  handling  of  each 
bird  several  times  during  the  season  most  farmers 
will  prefer  to  have  the  fowls  use  the  dust  bath. 
If  an  insecticide,  as  powdered  sulfur  or  insect 
powder,  is  used,  it  should  be  dusted  through  the 
feathers  next  to  the  skin,  preferably  in  the  even- 
ing when  the  fowls  are  quiet  and  on  the  perches, 
in  order  that  the  material  may  remain  in  the 
feathers  for  several  hours. 

Yards  and  parks. — The  question  of  confining 
fowls  is  perhaps  somewhat  undecided  in  the 
minds  of  many  farmers.  Because  the  fowls  of 
a  comparatively  small  flock,  when  given  their 
liberty  or  the  run  of  the  farm,  thrive  well  and 
produce  many  eggs  with  very  little  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  owner,  it  should  not  be  inferred 
that  large  flocks  will  prove  equally  satisfactory 
under  similar  conditions.  While  a  few  fowls 
may  be  given  the  run  of  the  farm  without  caus- 
ing very  much  annoyance,  large  flocks  would  be 
objectionable  for  many  reasons. 

Each  individual  must  decide  for  himself  whether 
he  will  permit  his  fowls  to  have  the  run  of  the 
farm  or  whether  he  will  confine  them  in  pens  or 
yards.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  far  better  to 
confine  the  fowls  within  suitable  inclosures.  The 
owner  then  has  control  of  the  conditions  and  is 
more  nearly  master  of  the  situation  than  it  is 


Yards  and  Park$ 


125 


possible  for  him  to  be  when  his  fowls  are  given 
full  liberty.  Those  who  provide  yards  or  runs 
for  the  fowls  do  not  all  agree  as  to  the  be^t 
method.  There  are  two  systems  in  use,  each 
possessing  its  own  advantages,  and  each  hav- 
ing warm  adherents.  One  system  or  plan  pro- 
vides comparatively  small  areas  for  small-  or 
medium -sized  flocks;  the  other  fences  large  areas 


Fig.  46.    Poultry  house  and  yard. 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

for  large  flocks  or  masses.  It  is  undoubtedly 
best  for  each  beginner  to  learn  what  he  can  of 
the  experience  of  others  and  then  to  select  the 
plan  that  best  meets  his  own  requirements. 

Undoubtedly  there  is  no  best  method  of  con- 
structing yards  or  runs  for  fowls.  What  may 
answer  the  purpose  admirably  for  one  would  be 
quite  unsuited  to  the  conditions  of  another.  The 
yards  should  be  so  constructed  that  they  best 


126  •    Farm  Poultry 

meet  the  natural  as  well  as  the  artificial  conditions 
under  which  the  fowls  are  to  be  kept.  Figs.  47 
and  48  illustrate  a  way  of  constructing  poultry 
houses  and  adjoining  yards  for  moderate -sized 
flocks.  This  system  has  been  used  satisfactorily 
by  successful  poultrymen  on  comparatively  level 
land.  It  is  particularly  advantageous  when  small 
yards  are  to  be  used  that  will  require  thorough 
cultivation.  Whatever  may  be  the  form  or  size 
of  the  yard,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
first  requisite  is  cleanliness,  that  part  of  the 
yard  nearest  the  poultry  house  undoubtedly 
requiring  frequent  cultivation.  The  ideal  con- 
dition is  to  have  one  part  of  the  yard  in  perma- 
nent grass  and  another  part  well  cultivated.  If 
a  rocky  or  rough  piece  of  land,  more  or  less 
woody,  is  near  at  hand,  there  is  no  reason  why 
this  may  not  profitably  form  a  part  of  the  poultry 
run  or  yard.  Poultry  yards  accommodating  fifty 
hens  should  inclose  about  sixteen  square  rods. 
If  fifty  fowls  are  kept  confined  in  the  house  and 
yard  throughout  the  year,  as  described  above,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  have  a  considerable  part 
of  the  yard  thoroughly  cultivated  in  order  to 
keep  it  clean. 

The  expense  of  constructing  and  maintaining 
poultry  fences  is  considerable,  and  the  plan 
to  be  preferred  is  the  one  that  will  give  the 
greatest  satisfaction  with  the  least  amount  of 


Yards 


127 


fence.  If  the  yards  are  to  be  cultivated,  it  will 
be  found  advantageous  to  have  them  long  and 
comparatively  narrow.  A  yard  two  rods  wide 
and  eight  rods  long  is  convenient  to  cultivate, 


Fig.  48. 
Poultry  houses  and  yards  of  C.  H.  Wyckoff,  Groton,  N.  Y. 

and  is  very  satisfactory  for  other  reasons.  As 
it  is  found  most  convenient  to  have  several  pens 
in  one  house,  it  is  therefore  convenient  to  have 
several  poultry  yards  side  by  side,  one  fence 
forming  the  boundary  of  two  yards.  See  Fig.  26, 


128  Farm  Poultry 

Provision  should  be  made  for  two-horse  cultiva- 
tion, for  sometimes  yards  will  need  to  be  plowed. 
The  yards  may  be  inclosed  by  either  picket  or 
wire  fences.  Whether  the  fences  be  entirely  of 
wood  or  of  wire  netting,  they  should  not  be  less 
than  seven  feet  high,  if  egg  breeds  are  to  be 
confined.  In  either  case,  it  is  well  to  have  a  wide 
board  placed  at  the  bottom.  Sometimes  it  is 
desirable  to  confine  comparatively  small  chickens 
in  these  yards.  Boards  at  least  a  foot  wide  at 
the  bottom  will  be  very  satisfactory,  if  the  re- 
mainder of  the  fence  is  constructed  of  the  ordi- 
nary two-inch  mesh  poultry  netting.  Should  the 
boards  be  omitted,  the  lower  part  of  the  fence 
should  be  formed  of  netting  having  a  mesh 
smaller  than  two  inches. 

It  is  undoubtedly  best  to  provide  some  shade 
for  the  fowls.  For  this  purpose  fruit  trees  have 
given  entire  satisfaction.  Plum  trees  are  especially 
recommended  for  poultry  yards.  One  of  the  great- 
est difficulties  experienced  in  raising  plums  is 
caused  by  the  attacks  of  the  curculio.  It  has  been 
found  by  trial  that  plums  grown  within  the  poultry 
yard  are  much  less  liable  to  injury  by  this  insect 
than  those  grown  under  similar  conditions  outside 
of  the  yards.  If  several  poultry  yards  are  arranged 
side  by  side,  the  owner  may  provide  for  a  plum 
orchard  by  planting  a  row  of  plum  trees  through 
the  middle  of  each  yard.  The  following  varieties 


Yards  and  Plum  Trees  129 

of  plums  have  been  especially  recommended   for 
this  purpose: 

Lombard,  Burbank, 

Bradsbaw,  Coe  Golden  Drop. 

Peter  Yellow  Gage, 

There  is  no  reason  why  an  apple  orchard 
may  not  form  a  poultry  yard  to  good  advantage. 
Particularly  would  this  be  true  if  the  orchard 
were  kept  under  thorough  cultivation,  a  practice 
which  is  now  so  strongly  recommended  by  the 
most  advanced  orchardists.  The  whole  orchard 
may  be  inclosed  with  the  poultry  fence  and  the 
fowls  given  the  run  of  it.  If  thought  advisable, 
simple,  temporary  yards  may  be  provided  for  the 
various  flocks  during  a  part  of  the  year,  when  it 
is  desired  to  keep  them  separate.  At  other  times 
all  of  the  flocks  may  be  given  the  run  of  the 
entire  orchard. 

When  the  fowls  have  once  become  accustomed 
to  their  house  or  home  they  will  give  the  owner 
very  little  trouble  by  perching  elsewhere,  even 
though  they  be  given  the  opportunity  to  do  so. 
Whenever  small  yards  are  used,  it  will  be  found 
desirable  to  place  the  young  birds  or  pullets  in 
their  permanent  yards,  if  possible  to  do  so.  Ma- 
ture fowls,  when  moved  from  one  pen  to  another, 
are  more  likely  to  fly  over  the  inclosure  than  if 
kept  throughout  the  season  in  the  yard  they  have 
learned  to  recognize  as  home.  It  has  frequently 


130  Farm  Poultry 

been  noticed  that  Leghorn  and  Minorca  hens  will 
remain  peaceably  in  the  yard  in  which  they  have 
been  reared,  but  if  moved  to  other  yards  will  give 
the  owner  more  or  less  trouble  by  flying  over 
the  fences,  although  the  latter  may  be  as  high 
as  seven  feet. 

In  latitudes  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide 
warm  houses  for  protection  against  freezing,  many 


Fig,  49.    Poultry  houses  and  yards  — 
West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

small  portable  houses  in  a  field  of  considerable 
size  are  preferred  to  more  pretentious  stationary 
houses  with  permanent  yards.  It  is  true  that 
the  labor  of  the  attendant  in  feeding  is  some- 
what increased,  but  considerable  labor  is  saved 
in  cleaning  and  cultivating  the  land  by  merely 
moving  the  buildings  a  short  distance.  The 
houses  are  usually  constructed  on  rude  and  in- 
expensive runners,  and  are  moved  from  place 
to  place  by  means  of  horses. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE  IMPROVEMENT  AND   BREEDING   OF  FOWLS 

As  a  dairyman  would  make  a  serious  mistake 
in  selecting  cattle  for  his  dairy  if  he  should  draw 
from  any  but  the  noted  dairy  breeds,  so  the  poul- 
tryman  or  farmer  would  make  an  equally  serious 
mistake  if  fowls  were  chosen  that  were  not  spe- 
cially adapted  to  his  purposes.  The  ultimate  suc- 
cess of  a  business  depends  largely  on  the  skill  of 
the  manager  in  selecting  the  proper  agents  or 
machines  to  do  the  work.  If  inferior  agents  are 
used  to  produce  a  merchantable  article,  either  the 
article  produced  is  not  first-class  or  the*  cost  of 
production  is  not  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In 
either  case  the  producer  is  not  able  to  compete 
successfully  with  those  who  have  a  better  equip- 
ment. 

SELECTION 

The  importance  of  choosing  a  suitable  breed 
or  variety  for  a  special  purpose  is  likely  to  be 
underestimated.  Apparently  the  same  importance 
is  not  given  to  differences  between  the  useful 
breeds  of  fowls,  that  is  recognized  between  the 

(131) 


132  Farm  Poultry 

different  breeds  of  cattle  and  horses.  In  reality 
as  great  differences  exist.  The  importance  of  a 
proper  selection  is  still  further  emphasized  when 
the  conditions  under  which  the  fowls  are  to  be 
kept  are  taken  into  consideration.  Some  fowls 
will  thrive  fairly  well  under  conditions  that  would 
not  prove  adequate  for  the  profitable  maintenance 
of  others.  Too  often  a  particular  variety  is  se- 
lected for  farm  use  because  some  fine-looking  or 
profitable  flock  has  been  seen  which  has  created 
a  desire  in  the.  mind  of  the  visitor  to  possess  a 
similar  flock.  This  is  sometimes  done  without 
considering  the  special  purposes  for  which  these 
fowls  are  to  be  kept,  and  perhaps  without  taking 
into  account  the  conditions  under  which  the  flock 
is  to  be  maintained,  even  though  these  conditions 
differ  materially  from  those  under  which  the  ad- 
mired flock  existed. 

The  great  variety  of  fowls  now  bred  in  this 
country  offers  to  the  poultryman  and  farmer  a 
wide  field  for  selection.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  of  this  great  variety  all  are  not  equally 
well  adapted  to  various  purposes  of  utility.  While 
a  certain  breed  may  give  entire  satisfaction  in  the 
hands  of  one  poultry-keeper,  another  may  find 
these  fowls  quite  unsatisfactory  because  he  is  un- 
able to  give  them  the  necessary  care  and  to  pro- 
vide the  conditions  under  which  they  thrive  best. 
It  may  happen,  therefore,  that  under  a  somewhat 


Improving  Fowls  ilirongh  Selection  133 

careless  management  the  most  noted  egg-breeds 
may  not  prove  the  most  satisfactory  for  egg  pro- 
duction. The  capabilities  of  the  fowls  and  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  to  be  kept  should 
both  be  taken  into  consideration  before  fowls  are 
selected  for  a  special  purpose. 

The  wide-awake,  progressive  poultryman  will 
ever  be  watchful  to  improve  his  fowls  for  the 
purpose  in  view,  after  procuring  those  that  seem 
best  adapted  to  his  wants.  He  must  not  be 
content  with  merely  choosing  a  proper  flock. 
Selection  should  go  on  year  after  year,  and  the 
fowls  be  continually  improved  for  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  kept  and  under  the  existing 
conditions. 

Selecting  eggs.— The  method  on  many  farms  of 
selecting  eggs  for  hatching  is  entirely  faulty,  and 
often  leads  directly  to  deterioration  rather  than 
improvement.  In  the  improvement  of  fowls  for 
egg  production  the  choice  should  be  made  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  eggs  laid.  Just  as  the 
dairyman  values  his  cows  by  the  number  of 
pounds  of  butter  fat  produced,  so  should  the 
poultryman  and  farmer  value  the  laying  hen  by 
the  number  of  eggs  put  forth  annually.  As  it  is 
difficult,  and,  under  the  usual  conditions,  impos- 
sible to  ascertain  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by 
each  fowl  in  a  farmer's  flock,  he  is  forced  to 
resort  to  other  methods  of  determining  which  are 


134  Farm   Poultry 

the  desirable  and  which  are  the  undesirable  fowls. 
Frequently  farmers  take  for  hatching  fine  well- 
formed  eggs  that  have  just  been  gathered  from 
a  promiscuous  flock.  This  method  of  selecting 
eggs  is  entirely  wrong,  and  should  be  avoided 
as  far  as  possible.  In  the  spring  all,  or  nearly 
all,  hens  are  laying.  The  hen  which  did  not  lay 
at  all  during  the  winter  will  probably  lay  during 
March,  April,  and  perhaps  May.  The  hen  that 
has  been  laying  during  the  winter  will  probably 
not  lay  as  many  eggs  in  the  spring  months  as 
the  poorer  hen  that  failed  to  lay  during  the 
severe  cold  weather.  Consequently  eggs  collected 
at  random  from  a  general  flock  will  consist 
largely  of  those  laid  by  the  poorest-laying  hens 
of  the  whole  flock.  It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss 
this  subject  further  in  order  to  show  that  this 
kind  of  selection  for  egg  production  tends  toward 
deterioration,  yet  many  persons  undoubtedly  pur- 
sue just  this  course  without  fully  knowing  its 
evil  tendencies. 

Whenever  it  is  convenient  to  do  so,  a  few  of 
the  best-laying  hens  should  be  placed  by  them- 
selves in  order  that  their  eggs  alone  may  be  used 
for  hatching.  If  it  is  impossible  to  select  fowls 
for  breeding  purposes  from  the  records  of  egg 
production,  which  is  the  true  test  of  the  laying 
hen,  the  owner  must  resort  to  other  methods. 
One  of  the  best  substitutes  for  actual  perform- 


Determining  Breeding  Stock  135 

ance  undoubtedly  is  to  select  for  strength  and 
vigor  of  constitution.  It  is  well  understood  that 
if  the  animal  machine  is  not  strong  it  will  prob- 
ably be  unable  to  perform  the  greatest  service. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  best  layers  are  strong, 
large -bodied,  vigorous  fowls.  They  are  known 
to  have  strong  constitutions. 

If  breeders  are  to  select  for  vigor,  they  can 
do  no  better,  perhaps,  than  to  make  the  choice 
at  the  moulting  period.  Strong,  vigorous  fowls 
pass  through  the  moulting  period  very  much  more 
rapidly  than  do  those  having  a  weak  constitution. 
The  robust  hen  that  lays  a  large  number  of  eggs 
during  the  year  will  pass  through  the  moulting 
period  quickly,  and  will  hardly  stop  laying,  while 
the  one  having  a  weak  constitution  will  be  a  long 
time  in  producing  a  new  coat  of  feathers,  and  will 
not  lay  for  many  weeks.  The  experienced  poul- 
tryman,  therefore,  finds  this  period  in  the  life  of 
the  fowl  a  most  excellent  one  in  which  to  make 
his  selection.  The  fact  that  the  bird  with  a 
strong  constitution  is  the  most  profitable  for  egg 
production,  may  explain  why  the  fowls  of  poul- 
trymen  who  make  a  specialty  of  egg  production 
average  larger  than  the  fowls  of  those  who  breed 
for  exhibition.  Almost  without  exception,  the 
average  size  of  fowls  of  flocks  specially  noted  for 
egg  laying  is  considerably  larger  than  the  average 
size  of  fowls  of  the  pure-bred  stock  of  that  breed. 


136  Farm  Poultry 

As  a  good- sized  body  and  a  deep  and  broad 
breast  are  indicative  of  a  strong  constitution,  so 
are  they  the  requisites  of  a  good  laying  hen. 

If  one  is  compelled  to  make  a  selection  for 
egg  production  solely  from  the  general  conforma- 
tion or  appearance  of  the  fowl,  he  should  select 
deep,  long -bodied  birds.  Those  having  a  short 
underline,  circular  in  outline,  should  be  dis- 
carded. The  feeding  capacity  of  the  hen  is  im- 
portant, for  those  that  are  able  to  digest  and 
assimilate  large  quantities  of  food  are  vigorous 
fowls  and  consequently  can  produce  eggs  in 
abundance. 

Americans  look  .t  very  much  closer  to  the  color 
and  feather  markings  than  do  the  English.  So 
far  as  meat  and  egg  production  are  concerned, 
the  English,  without  doubt,  have  the  advantage. 
As  shown  in  a  previous  chapter,  it  is  undoubtedly 
much  more  difficult  to  develop  two  unrelated  char- 
acteristics to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  than 
to  develop  a  single  characteristic.  The  English- 
man, therefore,  who  seeks  egg  production  without 
special  regard  to  the  color  of  the  plumage,  finds 
it  easier  to  reach  the  highest  state  of  perfection 
than  does  the  American  who  desires  to  breed 
fowls  for  egg  production  and,  at  the  same  time, 
have  them  true  to  feather. 

If  one  must  select  fowls  for  exhibition  pur- 
poses and  breed  them  for  fancy  points,  it  will 


Egg  Production  and  Fertility  of  Eggs         137 

undoubtedly  be  best  to  choose  some  solid-colored 
breed  or  variety  whose  tendency  to  depart  from 
the  standard  color  is  not  strong.  It  should  not 
be  inferred  that  all  solid-colored  fowls  are  easy 
to  breed  true  to  color  ;  in  fact,  some  of  the  so- 
called  solid  colors,  notably  the  buffs,  are  the 
most  difficult  to  breed  to  perfection. 

The  question  of  securing  fertile  eggs  for  in- 
cubation is  one  that  always  gives  breeders  more 
or  less  concern.  Some  breeders  are  more  suc- 
cessful than  others  in  securing  fertile  eggs,  and 
apparently  all  breeders  are  more  successful  dur- 
ing some  seasons  than  others.  Some  breeds  of 
fowls  are  noted  for  producing  fertile  eggs,  while 
others  are  generally  recognized  as  inferior  in  this 
respect.  The  freedom  given  the  fowls  of  a  flock, 
the  vigor  of  the  individuals,  and  the  number  of 
males,  very  largely  determine  the  fertility.  Pul- 
lets' eggs  are  generally  not  selected  for  hatching. 
It  is  thought  that  they  are  not  so  likely  to  be 
fertile,  and  will  not  produce  as  strong  and  vigor- 
ous chickens  as  hens'  eggs. 

Those  who  have  had  experience  in  operating 
incubators  know  that  all  fertile  eggs  will  not 
hatch.  There  seem  to  be  all  grades  of  fertility, 
from  the  egg  having  a  vigorous  germ  that  will 
produce  a  strong,  healthy  chicken,  to  that  having 
a  weak  germ  and  is  practically  an  infertile  egg. 
As  the  two  extremes  are  united  by  various 


138  Farm   Poultry 

intermediate  grades,  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a 
definite  line  of  separation  which  shall  divide  the 
fertile  from  the  infertile  ones. 

Fresh  eggs  are  to  be  preferred  for  hatching, 
although  good  hatches  from  eggs  that  were  kept 
several  weeks  are  reported.  Eggs  are  sometimes 
sent  long  distances  and  still  retain  their  vitality 
sufficiently  to  produce  a  good  number  of  strong 
chicks.  The  following  is  quoted  from  an  experi- 
ment station  publication :  *  "  Where  the  incubator 
is  placed  in  a  room  whose  temperature  is  reason- 
ably even  and  is  properly  managed,  a  high  per- 
centage of  hatch  may  be  expected  only  (a)  when 
the  hens  have  plenty  of  exercise,  (6)  when  the 
eggs  are  freshly  laid." 

After  the  male  is  removed,  the  eggs  are 
thought  to  be  fertile  for  a  few  days, — "from  four 
to  fourteen  days"  is  given  by  some  authors.  The 
following  gives  the  results  of  definite  observa- 
tions :f  "On  the  farm  of  the  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity 40  Leghorn  hens  which  had  previously  been 
kept  without  males  were  placed  in  pens  with  the 
male  birds  February  18,  and  the  percentage  of 
fertile  eggs  observed  for  nine  days  after  mating. 
This  increased  regularly  from  0,  on  the  day  of 
mating,  to  95  per  cent  on  the  eighth  day  after 
mating.  July  1  the  males  were  removed  from  the 

*  Bulletin  No.  158,  Michigan  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
t  Agricultural  Student  I  (1894),  in  Experiment  Station  Record. 


Influence  of  Males  on   Egg  Production         139 

pens.  The  fertility  of  the  eggs  was  apparently  not 
materially  affected  until  the  twelfth  day  after 
removing  the  roosters.  .  .  .  Unfortunately  the 
eggs  were  only  saved  fifteen  days,  and  hence 
it  is  not  shown  how  long  hens  must  be  removed 
from  the  male  before  all  the  eggs  become  in- 
fertile." 

For  the  greatest  production  of  eggs,  males  are 
not  required  except  for  the  breeding  pen.  Many 
poultrymen  who  have  made  a  specialty  of  egg 
production  and  have  won  for  themselves  a  repu- 
tation in  this  direction,  have  found  by  experi- 
ence that  males  are  of  no  use  in  the  laying  pen, 
and  are  often  a  positive  injury  when  only  eggs  for 
food  are  desired.  Tests  that  have  been  made  at 
experiment  stations  to  determine  the  influence  of 
males  on  egg  production,  tend  to  show  that  the 
practice  of  poultrymen  in  excluding  males  is  most 
advantageous.  The  following  paragraph  is  taken 
from  an  experiment  station  bulletin :  * 

"A  pen  of  pullets  kept  without  a  male  pro- 
duced eggs  at  about  30  per  cent  less  cost  than 
an  exactly  similar  pen  with  which  a  cockerel 
was  kept.  ...  In  each  of  the  two  pens  with- 
out male  birds  some  pullets  had  begun  to  lay 
from  one  to  two  months  earlier  than  any  in  the 
corresponding  pens  in  which  male  birds  were 
kept." 

*  Bulletin  No.  57,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


1 4 'J  Fa rm  Poult ry 

BREEDING 

Heredity.  —  Since  the  earliest  times  of  which 
any  authentic  records  have  been  preserved,  owners 
of  live  stock  have  made  attempts  to  improve  the 
animals  under  their  charge  by  the  art  of  breed- 
ing. Accounts  state  that  the  ancients  recognized 
the  principle  in  breeding  that  "like  begets  like," 
and  depended  on  it  quite  as  much  as  on  any  other 
principle.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  the  poul- 
tryman  and  stock  owner  depend  for  the  perpetu- 
ation of  species,  breeds  and  varieties.  In  this 
principle  is  recognized  the  law  which,  within 
certain  limits,  makes  offspring  like  their  parents. 
The  development  of  this  theory  no  doubt  came 
from  a  close  observation  of  domesticated  animals. 
Had  only  wild  animals  been  observed,  it  is  likely 
that  the  similarity  of  offspring  to  parents  would 
have  been  taken  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  what 
is  now  known  as  the  law  of  heredity  would  have 
been  studied  comparatively  little. 

Poultry  breeders  recognize  the  law  that  off- 
spring resemble  their  parents  within  certain  limits, 
and  depend  upon  this  law  more  than  upon  any 
other  as  the  foundation  upon  which  the  improve- 
ment by  breeding  depends.  If  it  were  not  for 
the  law  of  heredity,  selection  would  be  practically 
of  no  value.  If  strong,  hearty,  vigorous  parents, 
which  are  noted  for  their  useful  qualities,  were 


The    Transmission  of   Characters  141 

unable  to  transmit  their  desirable  traits,  it  might 
be  quite  as  profitable  to  breed  from  the  most  use- 
less of  animals.  In  other  words,  the  value  of 
selection  depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  parent 
to  impress  its  own  characteristics  upon  its  off- 
spring. That  characteristics  are  transmitted  to  a 


Fig.  50.     Breeding  and  exhibition  house  and  runs  — 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  College. 

certainty,  within  certain  limits,  is  evident  to  all. 
A  description  of  the  characteristics  of  one  man 
will  apply  to  nearly  all  men. 

Variation. — It  has  long  been  recognized  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  vary  within  certain  limits, 
and  that  this  tendency  is  always  present  in  all 
classes  of  animals,  whether  wild  or  domesticated. 
The  fact  that  wild  birds  and  animals  possess 
sufficient  individuality  to  make  them  readily  rec- 
ognizable by  each  other  is  adequate  proof  that 
these  animals  are  not  precisely  alike  in  all  re- 
spects. We  readily  distinguish  the  differences 


142  Farm  Poultry 

between  individual  members  of  our  herds  and 
flocks,  although  all  members  of  a  flock  or  herd 
may  have  sprung  from  the  mating  of  two  indi- 
viduals, and  therefore  have  the  same  lineage- 
It  is  more  difficult  to  observe  the  differences 
in  wild  birds  and  animals,  yet  such  differences 
exist  sufficiently  to  show  that  the  law  of  variation 
is  universal  and  constant  in  its  action.  It  has 
been  said  that  "no  two  animals  are  exactly  alike 
in  all  respects." 

The  tendency  to  vary  is  transmitted  from  par- 
ents to  progeny  in  the  same  way  that  other  pecu- 
liarities are  transmitted.  This  has  often  been 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  improvement  of 
fowls,  mammals  and  plants.  Breeders  who  are 
trying  to  improve  their  stock  are  continually  en- 
deavoring to  bring  the  law  of  heredity  into  force 
so  far  as  desirable  characteristics  are  concerned, 
and  as  continually  striving  to  prevent  the  opera- 
tion of  the  law  so  far  as  undesirable  character- 
istics are  concerned. 

The  fact  that  animals  vary  permits  of  an  indi- 
vidual being  an  improvement  on  its  parents.  If 
this  individual  is  allowed  to  transmit  its  good 
characteristics,  improvement  may  be  attained. 
Without  progressive  variation  breeders  could  not 
secure  improvement.  Probably  all  they  could 
do  would  be  to  prevent  deterioration. 

If  a  breeder  is  trying  to  improve  his  flock,  he 


The  Law  of   Variation 


143 


looks  closely  for  those  individuals  that  show  the 
greatest  tendency  to  vary.  These  individuals  he 
selects  for  breeding  stock.  He  finds  that  their 
young  vary  considerably.  They  do  not  closely 
resemble  each  other,  nor  do  they  closely  resemble 
their  parents.  If  an  abundance  of  good  food  and 
congenial  surroundings  be  provided,  he  may  ex- 
pect, in  the  course  of  a  few  generations,  that  some 


Fig.  51.    An  inclosed  scratching  shed,  an  excellent  plan  — 
Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

individuals  will  show  a  marked  tendency  to  vary 
in  the  direction  of  improvement.  By  judicious 
mating,  some  or  all  of  the  desired  improvements 
may  be  transmitted  and  rendered  permanent. 
The  improvement  of  breeds  consists  essentially  in 
fixing  the  desired  variations. 

Poultrymen  usually  look  to  the  male  for  the 
greatest  tendency  to  vary.*    Consequently  in  many 

*  "Heredity,"  by  Wm.  H.  Brooks. 


144  Farm  Poultry 

improvements  and  in  the  development  of  many 
new  breeds,  the  male  leads.  As  a  rule,  the  males 
of  a  breed  or  variety  differ  more  from  one  another 
than  the  females  differ  from  each  other.  The 
young  more  nearly  resemble  the  female  than  they 
do  the  male.  It  is  also  observed  that  the  organs 
most  highly  developed  in  the  male  differ  more 
than  do  the  organs  which  are  most  highly  devel- 
oped in  the  female, — that  is,  the  comb,  wattles, 
and  tail,  which  are  most  highly  developed  in 
the  male,  differ  more  than  those  parts  which  are 
most  highly  developed  in  the  female.  The  im- 
provement of  domesticated  fowls  depends  upon 
the  transmission  of  desired  characteristics  which 
have  been  produced  through  the  action  of  this  law 
or  fact  of  variation. 

In-and-in-breeding. — This  term  is  often  used 
in  a  rather  loose  sense  to  indicate  the  breeding 
together  of  animals  which  aje  more  or  less  closely 
related.  It  is  generally  used,  however,  to  indi- 
cate the  breeding  together  of  animals  that  are 
closely  related  for  several  successive  generations ; 
and  in  this  sense  it  is  used  in  this  discussion.  As 
breeders  have  not  agreed  on  an  exact  definition  of 
in -and -in -breeding,  there  is  a  considerable  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  just  what  the  term  implies. 
Some  breeders  hold  that  the  term  implies  only  the 
mating  of  animals  of  the  closest  relationship, 
while  others  strenuously  maintain  that  more  dis- 


In  -and-  in  -  Breedin g  145 

tant  relationship  should  be  included.  It  is  held 
by  some  that  breeding  together  animals  which 
have  a  more  distant  degree  of  relationship  than 
that  known  in  the  human  family  as  aunt  and 
nephew  or  uncle  and  niece,  should  not  be  recog- 
nized as  coming  within  the  meaning  of  this  term. 
On  the  other  hand,  others  are  emphatic  in  in- 
cluding more  remote  relationship. 

In-and-in-breeding  has  played  a  most  important 
part  in  the  formation  of  breeds  and  also  in  the 
improvement  of  breeds  that  were  well  established. 
As  variation  and  selection  enable  the  breeder  to 
produce  individuals  of  superior  merit,  he  will 
naturally  try  to  perpetuate  this  superiority  arid 
to  reap  the  advantages  of  it  through  successive 
generations  in  his  herd  or  flock.  This  has  been 
made  possible  through  in -and -in -breeding.  Al- 
most without  exception  marked  improvement  is 
first  noted  in  one  or  two  animals.  If  the  progeny 
of  these  animals  are  bred  to  each  other  or  to  one 
of  their  parents,  the  young  resulting  from  this 
mating  will  contain  a  much  larger  percentage  of 
the  "  blood "  of  the  animal  in  which  the  improve- 
ment was  noted  than  could  be  obtained  in  any 
other  way.  Consequently  the  chances  that  the 
improvement  will  be  transmitted  are  consider- 
ably enhanced. 

In  other  words,  in -and -in -breeding  enables  the 
breeder  to  accumulate  or  "  pile  up "  the  blood  of 


146  Farm  Poultry 

a  superior  animal  in  the  descendants  of  this  valu- 
able individual.  To  make  use  of  an  illustration, 
it  may  be  supposed  that  A  and  B  represent  two 
animals  of  the  same  breed  and  that  A  is  of  su- 
perior merit.  If  these  animals  are  mated,  the 
blood  of  the  progeny  will  be  represented  by  one- 
half  A  and  one-half  B.  If  A  be  bred  to  one  of 
the  progeny,  the  blood  of  the  offspring  of  the  last 
union  will  be  represented  by  three-fourths  A  and 
one-fourth  B.  This  practice  may  be  repeated  in 
succeeding  generations  and  would  be  accepted 
by  all  as  in -and -in -breeding.  As  the  percentage 
of  blood  is  increased  the  chances  that  the  im- 
provement will  be  perpetuated  are  also  increased. 

While  in -and -in -breeding  serves  a  most  useful 
purpose,  under  certain  conditions,  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  it  may  also  cause  deterioration 
in  various  ways.  A  commonly  accepted  belief  is, 
that  the  practice  of  in- and -in -breeding  may  re- 
sult in  a  reduced  constitution,  may  weaken  the 
mental  vigor,  reduce  the  size  of  the  individuals 
and  make  them  less  prolific.  Many  instances 
might  be  cited  to  show  that  any  one  or  all  of 
these  evils  may  accrue  from  in-and-in-breeding, 
and  it  is  also  true  that  any  one  or  all  of  these 
evils  will  not  be  produced  to  a  certainty  by  this 
practice. 

It  is  recognized  that  both  good  and  evil  re- 
sults may  follow  the  practice  of  in-breeding, 


Selecting  for  In -and -in -Breeding  147 

but  it  is  not  generally  accepted  that  the  good 
or  evil  results  are  in  proportion  to  the  degree 
of  relationship  between  the  animals  mated.  If 
in-breeding  is  to  be  practiced,  the  degree  of  re- 
lationship should  not  be  the  determining  factor. 
A  more  rational  selection  is  based  on  the  indi- 
vidual merits  of  the  animals  to  be  mated.  When 
related  individuals  are  to  be  bred  together,  the 
selection  should  be  made  on  the  suitability  of 
the  animals  to  each  other  and  not  wholly  on  the 
degree  of  relationship. 

The  safety  with  which  in-and-in-breeding  may 
be  practiced  will  depend  largely  on  the  skill  that 
is  used  in  selecting  the  related  animals  that 
are  to  be  mated,  and  on  the  extent  to  which 
the  practice  is  carried.  The  skilful  breeder  will 
be  able  to  derive  many  benefits,  and  will  cease 
the  practice  before  positive  injuries  accrue.  It 
may  safely  be  asserted,  as  a  general,  rule,  that 
promiscuous  or  indiscriminate  in-and-in-breeding 
should  not  be  practiced. 

Farmers  sometimes  select  from  their  young 
fowls  the  best  cockerel  to  head  the  flock  the 
next  year,  and  hold  that  as  long  as  they  are 
breeding  from  their  best  stock,  improvement  should 
follow.  In  so  doing,  they  perhaps  forget  that  the 
weaknesses  are  all  quite  as  likely  to  be  multiplied 
in  the  progeny  as  the  desired  characteristics. 

Cross-breeding. — This  may  be  defined  as  breed- 


148  Farm  Poultry 

ing  together  animals  of  two  distinct  breeds.  For 
many  years  cross-breeding  was  a  favorite  method, 
and  probably  became  popular  because  of  the 
frequently  observed  fact  that  increased  vigor 
was  imparted  by  it.  During  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, animals  were  frequently  cross-bred,  which, 
undoubtedly,  produced  in  the  progeny  a  plasticity 
of  constitution  and  well  prepared  them  for  the 
hands  of  skilful  breeders  who  later  attempted 
to  improve  them. 

Crossing  does  not  always  bring  improvement, 
although  there  seems  to  be  a  somewhat  preva- 
lent idea  that  such  improvement  necessarily  re- 
sults. While  certain  breeds  may  be  crossed  and 
will  thus  produce  increased  vigor  in  the  progeny, 
yet  there  is  frequently  a  tendency  to  reversion. 
That  is,  the  progeny  will  resemble  a  remote  an- 
cestor, perhaps  one  of  the  original  breeds  from 
which  the  improved  animals  were  descended. 
Charles  Darwin  bred  a  Black  Spanish  and  a 
White  Silky  together  and  in  the  second  gener- 
ation secured  a  fowl  that  very  much  resembled 
the  wild  Jungle  Fowl  of  India,  from  which  domes- 
ticated fowls  are  supposed  to  have  descended. 

Whenever  a  cross  is  made  between  individuals 
of  distinct  and  well-established  breeds,  reversion 
is  most  likely  to  occur.  That  is,  the  blood  of 
certain  distinct  breeds  does  not  blend  well.  It  is 
said  that  a  well-established  white  breed  crossed 


Dangers  of  Cross -Breeding  149 

upon  a  black  one  that  is  equally  as  well  estab- 
lished, is  quite  as  likely  to  produce  copper -col- 
ored chicks  as  black  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of 
the  two.  There  seems  to  be  a  greater  tendency 
to  reversion  whenever  violent  crosses  are  made. 

There  is  a  somewhat  prevalent  idea  that  if 
a  fowl  that  has  certain  good  qualities  be  crossed 
on  one  having  other  good  qualities,  the  offspring 
will  have  the  good  qualities  of  both.  This  is 
a  most  serious  mistake.  In  fact,  the  poor  quali- 
ties of  both  parents  are  even  more  likely  to  be 
seen  in  the  offspring  than  are  the  good  qualities 
of  both.  Some  authorities  state  that  the  poor 
qualities  of  both  parents  are  more  likely  to  be 
seen  in  the  offspring  than  the  good  qualities  of 
either. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  much  controversy 
over  the  influence  of  a  preceding  sire  on  the 
offspring.  Some  breeders  hold  that  in  mammals 
if  a  pure -bred  female  becomes  pregnant  by  a 
mongrel  she  is  forever  after  incapable  of  bear- 
ing pure -bred  offspring.  Poultry  men,  however, 
do  not  hold  such  extreme  views.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  it  has  been  clearly  shown  that  the  breed- 
ing qualities  of  a  pure -bred  hen  have  been  in- 
jured by  a  previous  mating. 

Cross-breeding  has  rendered  a  great  service 
in  the  formation  of  new  breeds.  The  Plymouth 
Rocks  and  Wyandottes  are  familiar  examples  of 


150  Farm  Poultry 

breeds  formed  by  crossing  well-established  breeds. 
It  is  of  doubtful  economy  to  cross  pure -bred 
fowls  of  well-established  races,  except  for  special 
purposes  which  will  rarely  be  of  service  to  the 
general  farmer.  It  may  happen  that  skilled  poul- 
trymen  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  cross 
distinct  breeds  for  the  production  of  a  specialty 
which  has  become  quite  famous.  Successful 
practices  of  this  kind  are  comparatively  few, 
and  are  of  foremost  interest  to  the  specialist. 
Whenever  pure  breeds  are  crossed  it  is  for  the 
production  of  a  merchantable  product,  and  the 
use  of  these  fowls  for  the  production  of  pure- 
bred stock  is  therefore  lost. 

Breed  pure-bred  stock. — The  question  is  fre- 
quently asked  whether  it  will  pay  to  breed  pure- 
bred stock.  If  the  answer  is  made  candidly  and 
honestly  it  must  be  given  as  both  affirmative 
and  negative.  It  certainly  will  pay  to  breed 
pure-bred  stock  if  proper  food,  care  and  man- 
agement be  given.  It  probably  will  not  pay  the 
average  farmer  to  invest  in  expensive  pure-bred 
stock  and  to  keep  this  stock  in  the  way  in 
which  the  fowls  of  mixed  breeding  are  generally 
kept  throughout  the  country.  As  the  pure -bred 
stock  had  received  superior  advantages  in  order 
to  bring  it  to  its  greatest  usefulness,  so  must  it 
receive  advantages  which  the  common  stock  of 
the  country  does  not  receive  if  it  is  to  remain 


Common  and  Pure -Bred  Stock  Compared       151 

superior.  In  other  words,  the  common  stock 
of  mixed  breeding  throughout  the  country  is 
practically  equal  to  the  thoroughbred  stock  that 
is  kept  under  the  same  conditions  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time.  If  neglect  and  im- 
proper feeding  are  not  to  enter  into  the  problem, 
the  pure- bred  stock  will,  undoubtedly,  give  by 
far  the  best  satisfaction.  The  grain  dealer  finds 
that  a  certain  variety  of  grain  is  hardy  and  is 
recognized  as  "sure,"  that  is,  it  rarely  fails  to 
bring  a  reasonable  crop,  yet  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  would  not  produce  a  maxi- 
mum crop.  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions 
other  varieties  may  outyield  this  hardy  one,  but 
under  adverse  conditions  would  not  be  able  to 
withstand  the  severe  test  endured  by  it.  So  we 
find  pure-bred  stock,  in  some  respects,  resem- 
bles the  improved  and  more  productive  but  less 
hardy  varieties  of  grain.  Under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  the  pure  breeds  will,  undoubtedly, 
prove  mo£'«t  remunerative.  Under  adverse  con- 
ditions, where  hardiness  is  the  all -important  con- 
sideration, the  useful  qualities  cannot  remain  so 
highly  developed. 

It  is  frequently  said  that  if  pure-bred  stock 
is  good  for  anything  it  should  prove  superior  in 
the  same  conditions  under  which  common  stock 
is  usually  kept;  but  the  owner  of  the  common 
stock  says  that  he  does  not  believe  in  pam- 


152  Farm  Poultry 

pering  his  fowls.  This  is  a  serious  mistake, 
and  one  that  frequently  prevents  the  true  ap- 
preciation of  improved  breeds.  It  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  best  of  improved  breeds  have 
reached  their  superiority  through  years  of  skilful 
feeding  and  breeding.  Food  has  always  played 
an  important  part  in  the  formation  and  improve- 
ment of  all  noted  useful  breeds.  Abundant  feed- 
ing and  good  care  have  produced  an  organization 
that  is  capable  of  digesting  and  assimilating  large 
quantities  of  food  and  turning  it  to  good  account. 
That  is,  the  machine  is  an  economical  one  and 
strong  enough  to  do  much  work.  The  farmer 
who  invests  in  pure -bred  stock  and  gives  it 
the  same  treatment  that  has  maintained  for 
years  an  indifferent  lot  of  fowls,  finds  the  im- 
proved stock  satisfactory  at  first,  but  succeeding 
generations  become  more  and  more  unsatisfac- 
tory until  they  reach  the  level  of  the  common 
stock,  which  was  the  highest  standard  that  his 
care  and  feeding  could  maintain.  Such  breed- 
ers stoutly  maintain  that  it  does  not  pay  to 
breed  pure-bred  stock. 

Improved  breeds  are  the  best,  and  should  be 
selected  whenever  it  is  possible  to  give  them 
proper  food  and  care.  While  they  may  not  prove 
greatly  superior  under  adverse  conditions,  yet  they 
respond  so  much  more  quickly  to  improved  con- 
ditions that  those  who  are  able  to  care  properly 


Of 


Improving   Common   Stock  -  153 

for  their  fowls  will  derive  much  greater  profit 
from  the  best  than  from  the  ordinary.  Improved 
breeds  are  most  remunerative  when  an  abun- 
dance of  suitable  food  is  provided,  and  the  fowls 
are  given  care  conducive  to  the  particular,  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  kept. 

IMPROVEMENT    OF    COMMON   FOWLS 

If  it  is  desired  to  improve  the  fowls  of  the 
farm  without  the  outlay  of  any  considerable  time 
or  money  except  that  which  is  to  be  given  in 
providing  better  food  and  environment,  perhaps 
the  most  satisfactory  way  is  to  use  a  pure-bred 
male.  This  method  enables  the  farmer  or  poul- 
tryman  to  change  at  once  one -half  of  his  breed- 
ing flock  to  pure-bred  stock  so  far  as  influence 
on  the  progeny  is  concerned.  From  the  breeders' 
standpoint  the  male  constitutes  one-half  of  the 
flock,  and  under  the  average  existing  conditions 
this  will  probably  be  a  fair  statement  of  the 
male's  influence.  Undoubtedly  there  are  many 
instances  in  which  the  male's  influence  is  very 
much  greater  than  the  combined  influence  of  all 
the  females  of  the  flock.  Instances  of  this  kind 
are  more  likely  to  be  seen  when  the  male  is  a 
well-formed,  strong,  vigorous  bird,  from  equally 
well -formed,  strong,  pure-bred  ancestors.  If 
these  conditions  have  existed  for  several  genera- 


154  Farm  Poultry 

tions,  the  importance  of  the  male  is  all  the  more 
marked. 

If  the  females  are  of  mixed  or  no  particular 
breeding,  their  influence  is  likely  to  be  far  less 
than  that  of  the  male.  So  it  may  be  safely  said 
that  the  influence  of  a  strong,  vigorous,  pure-bred 
male,  introduced  into  a  flock  of  females  of  mixed 
breeding,  will  be  at  least  equal  to  that  of  all 
the  females  in  a  transmission  of  parental  char- 
acteristics. The  progeny  from  a  well-bred  male 
and  females  of  mixed  breeding  are  generally 
quite  uniform  in  form  and  color.  Many  a  farm- 
er's boy  has  been  delighted  with  the*  sudden 
improvement  of  a  flock  of  fowls  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  pure-bred  male.  In  fact,  many  of 
them  have  found  that  the  progeny  of  this  breed- 
ing have  proved  to  be  the  most  desirable  fowls 
for  the  farm.  Some  of  them,  to  their  sorrow, 
have  tried  to  maintain  the  fine  appearance  and 
highly  useful  qualities  of  these  fowls  by  selecting 
breeding  stock  from  the  general  flock.  Conse- 
quently, the  next  generation  was  less  satisfactory 
and  the  third  and  fourth  were  disappointing. 
This  condition  has  been  most  noticeable  when 
the  pure-bred  male  and  the  more  or  less  indiffer- 
ent females  have  represented  quite  marked  dif- 
ferences in  type.  Instead  of  selecting  a  male 
from  the  general  flock,  another  pure-bred  male 
of  the  same  breed  as  the  first  should  have  been 


Grading   Up  155 

secured.  This  process  is  known  in  stock-breed- 
ing as  "grading  up."  The  larger  the  proportion 
of  pure-bred  blood  the  higher  the  grade. 

A  rational  method  of  improving  a  flock  of 
fowls  is  first  to  choose  with  great  care  the  breed 
for  the  purpose;  from  this  breed  pick  a  strong, 
vigorous,  pure-bred  male,  and  mate  him  with 
the  best  hen;  from  the  progeny  of  this  mating 
select  the  best  females,  to  place  with  another 
vigorous,  pure-bred  male  of  the  same  breed  as 
the  first.  This  operation  should  be  repeated  each 
year,  and  eventually  the  fowls  will  have  all  the 
characteristics  of  pure-bred  fowls.  The  yearly 
choice  of  a  pure-bred  male  should  be  continued. 

It  is  undoubtedly  best  to  breed  from  unrelated 
stock  so  far  as  possible.  It  may  also  be  safely 
said  that  if  the  greatest  improvement  is  to  be 
made,  only  mature  fowls  should  be  used  for  breed- 
ing purposes.  Particularly  is  this  true  with  the 
females  of  egg  breeds.  Pullets  are  not  so  desir- 
able as  hens  for  breeding  purposes.  Continued 
breeding  from  immature  stock  has  a  tendency 
to  weaken  the  constitution  and  to  reduce  the  size. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  use  pullets  they  should,  as 
a  rule,  be  mated  with  mature  males.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  frequently  desirable  to  mate  hens 
with  cockerels. 

Breed  useful  fowls. — It  is  the  object  of  the 
farmer  to  breed  useful  fowls.  While  the  indi- 


156  Farm   Poultry 

viduals  may  not  possess  the  requisite  fancy 
points  to  win  prizes  at  exhibitions,  yet  these 
same  individuals  should  be  noted  for  usefulness. 
The  most  noted  flocks  for  egg  production,  those 
that  have  gained  a  national  reputation,  have 
been  selected  and  improved  for  this  one  particu- 
lar quality  to  the  exclusion  of  fancy  points,  on 
which  so  much  importance  is  placed  at  the 
great  poultry  exhibitions.  In  the  early  history 
of  these  flocks,  the  surplus  birds  were  not  largely 
sold  for  breeding  purposes.  The  reputation  of 
these  flocks  had  not  been  established,  and  because 
the  birds  did  not  possess  the  prize-winning  fancy 
points,  the  demand  for  them  was'  not  equal  to 
the  supply.  In  later  years,  when  the  reputation 
of  these  flocks  became  well  known,  the  surplus 
stock  found  ready  sale  at  remunerative  prices, 
solely  because  of  their  usefulness.  While  farm 
stock  should  receive  recognition  at  agricultural 
fairs,  yet  it  will  be  shown  at  a  disadvantage  when 
placed  in  competition  with  the  fanciers'  fowls, 
which  are  bred  largely  for  exhibition.  The  farm- 
er's stock  should  be  selected  and  maintained 
for  the  profit  of  eggs  and  meat,  rather  than  for 
the  profit  which  the  fowls  may  bring  when  sold 
for  breeding  stock.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
many  farmers  may  sell  breeding  stock  at  remu- 
nerative prices,  although  the  main  object  should 
not  be  to  produce  birds  for  this  purpose.  When- 


Selection  and  Improvement  157 

ever  one  depends  on  the  sale  of  fowls  for  breed- 
ing purposes  for  profit,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
enter  into  competition  with  other  breeders  at  the 
great  poultry  shows,  This  necessitates  a  depart- 
ure from  the  purpose  for  which  farm  fowls  are 
kept. 

Farmers  and  others  who  maintain  flocks  for 
usefulness  should  not  forget  the  importance  of 
selection.  Remember  that  all  improvement  is 
largely  due  to  selection,  and  that  after  the  flock 
is  well  established  it  can  be  further  improved 
for  the  purposes  for  which  the  breeds  are  kept 
by  rigorous  selection,  skilful  breeding  and  im- 
proved feeding.  It  is  possible  for  every  farmer 
to  improve  any  breed  of  fowls  for  his  purpose. 
This  of  course  implies  productiveness  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  A  breed  of  fowls,  or  a  flock 
of  fowls  of  a  distinct  breed,  may  be  brought  to 
a  high  state  of  perfection  by  a  poultryman,  con- 
sidering the  conditions  under  which  he  keeps 
them,  and  under  more  favorable  conditions  they 
may  be  still  further  improved. 


CHAPTER   IX 

FEEDING  FOR  EGGS  AND  FOR  MEAT 

THE  successful  poultry -keeper  recognizes  that 
all  kinds  of  wholesome  poultry  food  which  the 
market  affords  are  not  equally  well  suited  to  his 
fowls  which  he  keeps  for  the  production  of  either 
eggs  or  meat.  He  lays  great  stress  on  the  care- 
ful selection  of  food  for  the  making  of  special 
products. 

FEEDING   FOR   EGGS 

If  one  desires  to  feed  economically  for  egg 
production,  and  has  learned  little  or  nothing  from 
experience,  a  most  valuable  lesson  may  be  learned 
from  nature.  It  will  be  observed  that  those  fowls 
which  are  more  or  less  neglected,  and,  conse- 
quently, not  so  far  removed  from  the  natural 
state,  lay  most  abundantly  in  the  spring.  In 
this  respect,  then,  the  poultry-keeper  may  profit- 
ably aim,  so  far  as  it  lies  within  his  power,  to 
prolong  the  spring  throughout  the  year.  In  the 
spring  these  fowls  are  at  liberty  to  roam  at  will 
and  to  find  abundant  green  food  in  the  tender 

(158) 


Food  and  Exercise  159 

shoots  of  grass  and  other  plants.  They  find 
meat  food  in  the  form  of  insects,  worms  and 
other  low  forms  of  animal  life.  These,  with 
grain  in  some  form,  make  a  most  perfect  food 
for  laying  hens.  If  the  grain  food  is  not  sup- 
plied to  them  by  the  poultry -keeper,  they  may 
still  find  it  in  the  form  of  seeds  of  various 
plants.  In  other  words,  it  should  be  the  aim 
of  the  poultry -keeper  to  supply  the  food  and 
conditions  which  tend  to  produce  eggs  most 
abundantly.  While  it  is  true  that  the  physical 
organization  of  fowls  is  such  that  they  will  be 
unable  to  maintain  throughout  the  year  the  abun- 
dant supply  of  eggs  of  the  springtime,  yet  this 
will  be  most  nearly  approached  if  the  conditions 
are  springlike  the  year  round. 

Exercise. — In  the  spring  season  the  fowls  that 
are  given  free  range  obtain  abundant  exercise. 
It  is  important  to  provide  exercise  for  all  noted 
egg  breeds,  as  these  fowls  are  active  in  dispo- 
sition. Close  confinement  without  exercise  is 
not  conducive  to  the  best  results,  although  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  food  provided  may  be 
most  excellent.  While  exercise  is  required  for 
egg  production,  it  is  not  desirable  when  the  fin- 
est quality  of  meat  is  sought,  particularly  during 
the  last  of  the  fattening  period,  so  that  what 
may  be  said  of  exercise  for  egg  production 
should  not  be  applied  to  fattening  fowls. 


160  Farm  Poultry 

Quality  of  food. — It  has  been  clearly  shown  by 
experiments  that  the  food  consumed  by  laying 
hens  affects  the  flavor  of  the  eggs.  In  extreme 
cases,  not  only  is  the  flavor  of  the  food  imparted, 
but  the  odor  as  well.  Onions*  have  been  fed 
to  fowls  in  sufficient  quantity  to  impart  a  decided 
flavor  and  odor  to  the  eggs.  So  marked  was  the 
result,  that  persons  wholly  unacquainted  with  the 
experiment  had  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing 
these  eggs  from  those  which  were  laid  by  hens 
fed  a  normal  ration. 

The  mere  fact  that  food  influences  the  flavor 
of  eggs  in  extreme  cases,  is  a  sufficient  reason 
for  the  poultryman  to  reject  all  food  that  is  not 
strictly  wholesome.  It  has  not  been  determined 
to  what  extent  the  ordinary  poultry  foods  in- 
fluence the  flavor;  but  tainted  food  should  not 
be  permitted  to  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  ration.  If  food  of  high  and  objectionable 
flavor  imparts  its  peculiar  taste  and  odor  to  the 
egg,  it  is  not  safe  for  those  who  desire  to  pro- 
duce a  prime  article  to  run  unnecessary  risks  in 
feeding  doubtful  food.  Pure,  wholesome  food  is 
so  abundant  and  cheap  that  there  is  no  excuse 
for  a  questionable  practice. 

Forced  feeding  for  eggs. — It  is  maintained  by 
some  authorities  that,  when  hens  are  given  a 

*  From  unpublished  results  of  experiments  conducted  by  the  author, 
at  Cornell  University. 


Moderate  Feeding  161 

course  of  forced  feeding  for  egg  production,  their 
period  of  usefulness  is  materially  shortened.  This 
no  doubt  will  be  true  in  many  instances,  when 
the  fowls  have  been  injudiciously  fed.  Experi- 
ence has  shown  that  it  is  possible  with  ordinarily 
vigorous  animals  to  carry  the  forcing  process  so 
far  that  many  individuals  will  be  permanently  in- 
jured. These  cases,  however,  should  be  consid- 
ered as  extreme  and  do  not  come  within  the 
province  of  judicious  feeding.  The  injury  done 
to  dairy  animals  by  forced  feeding  is  undoubt- 
edly chiefly  due  to  the  injudicious  feeding  of  un- 
natural foods.  The  injury  is  associated  mostly 
with  the  digestive  functions.  It  is  quite  possible 
to  injure  the  digestion  of  laying  hens  by  a  sys- 
tem of  forced  feeding. 

Egg  production  is  a  reproductive  function,  and 
in  this  respect  differs  somewhat  from  milk  pro- 
duction in  the  dairy  cow.  To  what  extent  this 
reproductive  function  may  be  injured  by  feeding 
has  not  been  fully  determined.  It  has  been  ob- 
served many  times  that  after  a  year  of  forced  egg 
production  the  number  of  eggs  laid  has  been 
somewhat  decreased;  that  is,  it  is  possible,  by 
means  of  extra  food  and  care,  to  induce  fowls 
to  lay  more  eggs  than  would  be  produced  under 
good  average  conditions;  but  it  is  not  possible 
to  keep  up  the  highest  degree  of  egg  production 
through  two  or  three  successive  years.  It  is, 


162  Farm  Poultry 

therefore,  the  practice  of  many  poultryrnen  to 
keep  only  young  birds  for  egg  production  and 
to  force  them  for  this  product.  When  the  hens 
have  served  a  period  of  forced  egg  laying,  they 
are  replaced  by  younger  fowls.  This  method 
will  necessitate  keeping  older  fowls  as  breeding- 
stock,  which  is  in  accord  with  the  most  .approved 
practice. 

Corn. —  Of.  the  grain  foods  that  are  usually 
supplied  to  farm  poultry,  corn  has  been,  and  still 
is,  the  most  popular.  This,  no  doubt,  is  largely 
due  to  the  abundance  of  this  grain  arid  to  its 
relative  cheapness.  If  the  fowls  are  somewhat 
closely  confined,  a  corn  ration  is  found  to  be 
somewhat  too  fattening  for  most  satisfactory  re- 
sults, particularly  when  fed  to  general -purpose 
fowls.  If  this  grain  is  supplied  to  the  noted  egg 
breeds  that  have  a  wide  range,  much  more  sat- 
isfactory results  are  likely  to  be  obtained.  It 
should  be  the  aim  of  the  poultryman  to  feed 
considerable  grain  in  such  manner  as  will  not 
cause  the  fowls  to  become  excessively  fat.  Fat 
fowls,  as  a  rule,  do  not  lay  so  abundantly  as  do 
those  in  moderate  flesh.  When  corn  is  fed  to 
laying  hens  that  have  opportunity  to  take  plenty 
of  -  exercise  and  to  secure  for  themselves  insects 
and  green  food,  much  better  results  will  be  ob- 
tained than  when  it  is  fed  to  the  same  kind  of 
fowls  closely  confined.  Experiments  have  shown 


Value  of  Corn  as  a  Food  163 

that  a  clear  corn  ration,  given  to  closely  confined 
Leghorn  hens,  has  resulted  in  a  marked  decrease 
in  egg  production  and  is  sometimes  accompanied 
by  feather  pulling.  Feather  pulling  usually  in- 
dicates a  faulty  ration.  The  fowls  have  a  crav- 
ing for  something  not  supplied  to  them,  and 
resort  to  feather  eating  to  obtain  it. 

Experiments  have  clearly  shown  that  food  has 
a  great  influence  on  the  color  of  the  yolk  of  the 
egg.  Corn  will  give  deep  yellow  or  highly 
colored  yolks.  Clear  corn  arid  water,  the  feeding 
of  which  would  be  considered  an  extreme  case, 
will  produce  yolks  which  are  objectionable  to 
many  consumers  on  account  of  the  extremely  high 
color.  Fairly  high-colored  yolks  are  generally 
preferred,  and  a  moderate  amount  of  corn  in  the 
ration  can  be  depended  upon  to  produce  the  de- 
sired color. 

The  greatest  economy  in  feeding  fowls  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  ability  of  the  feeder  to 
make  the  best  use  of  corn.  In  supplying  food 
for  domesticated  fowls,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  three  kinds  of  constituents  should  be  pres- 
ent, in  tolerably  well -fixed  proportions,  if  the 
desired  results  are  to  be  obtained  most  economi- 
cally. These  constituents  are  mineral,  nitroge- 
nous and  carbonaceous.  Corn  is  deficient  in  both 
mineral  and  nitrogenous  matter.  So,  whenever 
corn  forms  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  daily 


164  Farm  Poultry 

ration,  these  deficiencies  should  be  supplied  in 
some  acceptable  form.  Animal  meal,  cut  bone, 
animal  charcoal  and  bone  ash  are  all  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Wheat. — Wheat  is  preferred  to  corn  by  many 
because  it  is  not  quite  so  fattening,  and  is,  there- 
fore, a  somewhat  safer  food  in  the  hands  of  the 
unskilled  feeder.  On  account  of  the  low  price  of 
wheat  in  recent  years,  it  is  becoming  a  very  com- 
mon poultry  food.  Wheat,  when  fed  alone,  pro- 
duces eggs  having  much  lighter  -  colored  yolks 
than  are  produced  by  a  corn  ration.  Wheat 
alone  has  somewhat  too  wide  a  nutritive  ratio 
for  best  results.  This  grain  should  be  supple- 
mented by  some  meat  food  or  skimmed  milk  in 
order  that  the  proportion  of  protein  may  be  ma- 
terially increased.  Wheat  should  not  form  all  of 
the  grain  ration  of  laying  hens,  but  when  mixed 
with  other  grains  it  is  most  highly  prized. 

Buckwheat. — Buckwheat,  like  wheat,  when  fed 
alone,  has  too  wide  a  nutritive  ratio  and  pro- 
duces white  flesh  and  light-colored  yolks.  These 
are  objectionable  features  to  most  Americans,  but 
in  some  large  cities  the  foreign  population  pre- 
fers white  skin  and  light-colored  flesh.  This 
grain  has  never  been  so  popular  as  a  poultry  food 
in  the  United  States  as  corn  or  wheat. 

Oats. —  Oats  are  considered  a  most  excellent 
food  and  perhaps  come  nearer  the  ideal  than 


Grains  and  Succulent  Food  165 

any  other  single  grain,  particularly  if  the  hull 
or  outer  covering  is  removed.  This  hull,  being 
tough  and  woody  and  quite  indigestible,  is  not 
relished  by  the  fowls,  although  some  fowls  will 
learn  to  eat  whole  oats.  Oats  also  tend  to  give 
the  fowl  light-colored  flesh  and  light-colored  skin. 
On  this  account  oats  are  not  recommended  for  a 
finishing  food,  unless  skin  and  shanks  of  a  light 
color  are  desired. 

Linseed  meal. — A  little  linseed  meal  in  the 
ground  food  serves  a  most  valuable  purpose, 
particularly  at  the  moulting  period.  "Hens  hav- 
ing linseed  meal  moulted  nearly  all  at  the  same 
time,  earlier  in  the  season,  and  more  rapidly."  * 

Green  food  in  general. — When  fowls  are  some- 
what closely  confined  in  yards  or  pens,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  supply  some  kind  of  green  food 
in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  production  of 
eggs.  This  should  be  given  them  throughout 
the  year.  The  question  of  how  to  supply  the 
best  food  at  the  least  cost  is  one  that  each 
poultry -keeper  must  decide  largely  for  himself. 
It  will  probably  make  very  little  difference  what 
kind  of  green  food  is  supplied,  provided  that  it 
is  relished  by  the  fowls.  If  the  runs  or  yards  are 
large,  so  that  fresh  grass  may  be  supplied  to 
them  during  the  summer  months,  little  or  no 
other  green  food  will  be  required. 

*  Bulletin  No.  39,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


J66  Farm   Poultry 

Clover,  etc. — Clover  cut  during  the  early  spring 
is  perhaps  one  of  the  cheapest  and  best  of  foods. 
It  is  nitrogenous  and  is  readily  eaten  when  cut 
fine  in  a  fodder -cutter.  If  clover  is  frequently 
mowed,  a  good  quality  of  green  food  may  be 
obtained  nearly  all  summer,  particularly  in  sea- 
sons of  abundant  rainfall.  Should  the  supply  of 
clover  be  limited,  or  the  season  prove  an  unusu- 
ally dry  one,  other  legumes  may  provide  a  satis- 
factory substitute.  Alfalfa  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose well  if  fed  to  the  fowls  in  a  fresh  condition. 
A  small  plot,  if  well  established,  will  afford  a 
great  quantity  of  green  food  if  it  is  frequently 
mowed.  Young  alfalfa  is  tender  and  is  relished 
by  the  fowls,  but  when  it  approaches  the  blossom- 
ing stage  it  becomes  more  woody  and  is  not  so 
valuable.  Canada  field  peas  are  sometimes  grown 
for  this  purpose,  and  the  peas,  if  fed  whole  while 
in  a  tender  and  crisp  condition,  are  eaten  readily 
by  the  fowls. 

Beets  (Mangel  -  wurzels] . —  These  beets  make 
an  excellent  green  food  for  the  winter  months. 
As  they  are  easily  raised  and  will  maintain  their 
fresh  condition  in  an  ordinary  root  cellar  during 
the  winter  months,  they  fulfil  many  of  the  re- 
quirements of  a  practical  poultry  food.  They 
may  be  fed  by  simply  splitting  the  root  length- 
wise with  a  large  knife.  If  given  to  the  fowls 
in  this  form,  they  will  pick  out  the  crisp  fresh 


Succulent    Food 


167 


pulp  from  the  cut  surface.  Root -cutters  are  on 
the  market  which  cut  beets  in  fine  shreds  some- 
what resembling  earthworms  in  form.  See  Fig.  52. 
These  shreds  are  eaten  readily.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  fowls  should  have,  once  a  day,  about 
all  the  green  food  they  will  eat.  The  form  in 
which  the  beets  are  offered  is 
not  important,  provided  they 
are  consumed  while  in  a 
clean,  fresh  condition.  Un- 
less the  pieces  of  roots  be 
small  enough  for  the  fowls  to 
swallow  them,  large  pieces 
like  half  a  beet  are  prefer- 
able. When  beets  are  fed 
from  an  open  trough,  in 
pieces  of  the  size  usually 
made  by  ordinary  root -cut- 
ters, many  pieces  are  likely 
to  be  scattered  in  the  litter 
and  more  or  less  soiled  be- 
fore eaten,  if  eaten  at  all.  Either  very  small, 
or  large  and  practically  immovable  pieces,  are 
preferred. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage  is  relished  by  fowls,  and 
is  highly  prized  as  a  poultry  food  by  many 
experienced  poultrymen.  Cabbage,  like  beets, 
should  be  fed  in  a  fresh  condition.  It  is  the 
practice  of  some  poultry -keepers  to  suspend 


Fig.  52.    A  vegetable-cutter. 


168  Farm  Poultry 

heads  of  cabbage  within  reach  of  the  fowls  and 
permit  them  to  partake  ad  libitum. 

Rape,  etc. — Rape,  sea  kale,  and  other  plants 
of  the  cabbage  family,  which  are  noted  for  their 
crisp  stems  and  leaves,  furnish  excellent  green 
poultry  food.  Dwarf  Essex  rape  may  be  sown 
in  narrow  rows  and  given  horse  cultivation. 
When  the  leaves  are  large  enough  to  furnish 
considerable  food,  they  may  be  picked  and  fed 
to  the  fowls.  If  hand-picking  is  objectionable, 
the  leaves  may  be  cut  with  a  sickle  or  scythe. 
If  cut  a  few  inches  from  the  ground,  a  second  or 
third  crop  will  often  be  produced  from  one  seed- 
ing. 

Clover  ~hay. — If  green  food  is  not  at  hand  for 
winter  feeding,  a  good  substitute  may  be  found 
in  steamed  clover  hay,  particularly  if  it  is  mixed 
with  the  soft  or  ground  grain  food.  It  is  import- 
ant to  have  this  hay  finely  cut.  If  a  steamer 
is  not  at  hand,  the  hay  may  be  satisfactorily 
treated  by  putting  it  in  a  tight  vessel  and  pour- 
ing on  boiling  water  sufficient  to  moisten  all  the 
cut  hay,  permitting  it  to  remain  tightly  covered 
over  night. 

Meat  foods. — Poultrymen  find  it  to  their  ad- 
vantage to  imitate  the  natural  food  of  the  fowls 
and  to  furnish  some  meat  food.  Fowls  that  are 
given  a  wide  range  in  the  summer  time  feed 
largely  on  insects  and  earthworms;  but  during 


Meat  Food 


169 


the  winter  months,  and  when  fowls  are  confined 
in  comparatively  small  houses  and  yards,  it  will 
be  best  to  feed  meat  in  some  form.  "Vegetable 
foods,  even  though  furnishing  equal  amounts  of 
all  nutrients  and  in  the  proportions  considered 
suitable,  are  shown  to  be  much  inferior  to  animal 
foods  furnishing  the  same 
amounts  of  nutrients  and  in 
the  same  proportions."  * 

Fresh  bones,  which  may  be 
obtained  from  meat  markets, 
if  finely  cut  with  bone-cutters 
(Figs.  53,  54),  make  one  of 
the  best,  if  not  the  best,  of 
meat  foods  for  laying  hens. 
This  is  also  excellent  for  little 
chickens.  Many  poultrymen, 
however,  cannot  depend  upon 
the  local  meat  markets  for 
their  supply,  particularly  dur- 
ing the  warm  weather.  After  the  bones  have 
become  tainted  they  should  be  rejected  as  un- 
fit for  poultry  food.  When  fresh  bones  can- 
not be  obtained,  animal  meal  may  be  relied  on 
for  satisfactory  results.  Only  meal  that  is  guar- 
anteed wholesome  should  be  procured.  A  good 
quality  will  generally  contain  about  10  per  cent 
of  nitrogen.  This  meal  should  be  dry  enough 

*  Eighth  Annual  Report,  Mass.  Hatch  Experiment  Station. 


Fig.  53.     A  bone-cutter. 


170 


Farm    Poultry 


Fig.  54.    Another  style  of  bone- 
cutter. 


to    keep    well    for    several    seasons    if    necessity 
requires. 

Canned  meat  foods,  specially  prepared  for 
poultry,  are  on  the  market.  These  give  satisfac- 
tory results  under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  but  are 
usually  found  to  be  some- 
what more  expensive  than 
the  animal  meals.  Some 
of  the  so-called  poultry 
meat  foods  that  are  pre- 
served in  tin  cans,  consist 
largely  of  liver. 

Skim  milk. — Skim  milk 
may  be  substituted, 
wholly  or  in  part,  for  meat  food  without  a  marked 
decrease  in  egg  production,  provided  the  proper 
grain  ration  is  given.  In  order  to  substitute  milk 
entirely  for  meat,  it  will  probably  be  necessary 
to  give  the  fowls  milk  to  drink  instead  of  water 
and  to  mix  soft  food  with  the  milk.  If  milk  be 
depended  upon  entirely  to  take  the  place  of  meat, 
somewhat  greater  okill  will  probably  be  required 
in  feeding  than  if  a  good  quality  of  animal  meal 
is  fed. 

Grit. — It  is  necessary  that  fowls  be  supplied 
with  some  kind  of  grit,  which  is  used  in  the  giz- 
zard for  grinding  the  food.  Fowls  at  all  ages, 
from  the  little  chicken  just  hatched  to  the  mature 


Kinds  of  Grit  171 

fowl,  require  grit  if  hard  food  is  given  them. 
When  soft  food  alone  is  supplied,  little  or  no 
grit  will  be  required.  During  the  summer  months, 
when  fowls  have  a  large  range,  they  are  usually 
able  to  find  sufficient  grit  for  themselves.  Small 
pieces  of  stone,  cinders,  etc.,  are  eaten.  Crushed 
limestone  and  crushed  granite  also  answer  the 
purpose  admirably  when  it  is  necessary  to  supply 
grit  artificially.  Crushed  granite,  on  account  of 
its  excessive  hardness,  is  more  durable  than  pieces 
of  softer  material.  There  are  many  poultry  supply 
houses  that  keep  crushed  granite  in  various  sizes, 
suitable  for  all  kinds  of  poultry.  Crushed  oyster 
shells  will  also  furnish  material  for  grinding  the 
food,  although  they  are  not  recommended  solely 
for  this  purpose. 

"Long  or  sharp  splinters  of  glass  or  dry  bone 
should  be  avoided.  The  size  of  particles  of  grit 
had,  for  hens,  better  be  larger  than  that  of  a 
kernel  of  wheat  and  should  be  smaller  than  that 
of  a  kernel  of  corn.  An  unlimited  supply  of 
pounded  glass  has  been  attended  with  no  bad 
result  when  the  food  and  other  grit  available 
to  the  fowls  contained  an  abundance  of  lime, 
but,  when  the  food  was  deficient  in  lime  and  no 
other  grit  was  attainable,  hens  ate  an  injuriously 
large  amount  of  glass."  * 

Lime. — Many  experiments    and   also    chemical 

*  Bulletin  No.  38,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


172  Farm   Poultry 

analyses  of  foods  and  of  eggs  show  that  there  is 
not  sufficient  lime  consumed  by  the  fowls,  in 
ordinary  poultry  foods,  to  form  the  shells  of  eggs 
produced  by  laying  hens,  particularly  when  they 
are  producing  eggs  most  abundantly.  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  supply  lime,  in  some  form,  to 
laying  hens.  Crushed  oyster  shells  are  recom- 
mended for  this  purpose.  It  is  found  to  be  sat- 
isfactory to  place  the  crushed  shells  before  the 
fowls  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  eat  the 
amount  needed,  and  it  is  usually  safe  to  rely 
on  the  judgment  of  the  fowls  in  this  respect. 
Some  poultrymen,  however,  mix  crushed  oyster 
shells  with  the  soft  food  in  addition  to  the  supply 
which  should  be  kept  before  them  all  the  time. 
"The  feeding  of  oyster  shells  during  the  laying 
season,  when  they  can  be  cheaply  obtained, 
is  recommended.  One  pound  will  contain  lime 
enough  for  the  shells  of  about  seven  dozens  of 
eggs.  Fine  gravel  containing  limestone  will  prob- 
ably as  well  supply  the  deficiency  of  lime  existing 
in  most  foods,  but  the  use  of  some  sharper  grit 
with  it  may  be  of  advantage."* 

Salt. — A  little  salt  is  undoubtedly  beneficial  and 
necessary,  but  it  is  poisonous  if  taken  in  large 
quantities.  Instances  are  frequently  reported  of 
fowls  being  injured  by  eating  salt.  They  are 
undoubtedly  frequently  misled  in  eating  it,  sup- 

*  Bulletin  No.  38,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Amount  of  Salt  Necessary  173 

posing  that  they  are  eating  grit.  Eock  salt  is 
particularly  dangerous  on  this  account.  Some 
instances  have  been  known  of  fowls  being  poi- 
soned by  eating  salt  fish  which  had  been  care- 
lessly thrown  where  they  could  gain  access  to 
it.  When  fowls  have  a  wide  range  they  eat 
grass,  insects,  and  many  other  things  that  already 
furnish  salt  in  some  quantity.  This  may  explain 
why  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed  salt  under  these 
conditions. 

Experiments  made  at  the  New  York  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  showed  that  salt  was  not  in- 
jurious in  quantities  below  .063  ounce  per  day  for 
each  hen  (that  is,  nearly  one -half  pint  per  day  for 
100  hens) .  The  following,  taken  from  Bulletin  No. 
39,  gives  results  of  the  experiment:  "The  number 
of  eggs  laid  during  this  trial  is  of  no  great  signifi- 
cance, as  it  was  about  the  end  of  the  laying  sea- 
son and  the  hens  were  old;  but,  inasmuch  as  the 
yield  of  eggs  was  twice  as  great  from  the  hens 
having  salt,  while  it  was  mixed  with  the  food,  it 
would  appear  that  not  enoigh  was  fed  to  very 
injuriously  affect  egg  production.  The  salt  used 
was  ordinary  barrel  salt,  although  not  coarse. 
Should  rock  salt  be  exposed,  or  salt  that  contained 
large  crystals  or  fragments  as  large  as  the  par- 
ticles of  gravel  and  grit  eaten  by  hens,  it  would 
of  course  not  take  long  for  a  fatal  amount  to  be 
3 wallowed.  For  mature  fowls  it  is  probable  that 


174  Farm  Poultry 

salt  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  per  day  for  100  fowls 
could,  under  ordinary  conditions,  be  fed  without 
injury." 

Sulfur. —  Sulfur  is  generally  recognized  as  a 
blood  purifier  but  should  not  be  fed  in  any  con- 
siderable quantity  unless  its  action  is  well  under- 
stood and  precautions  are  taken  to  guard  against 
any  undesirable  results.  It  is  generally  recognized 
that  fowls  take  cold  easily  when  fed  sulfur. 

Pepper. — Pepper  is  sometimes  given  to  fowls 
suffering  from  cold  or  in  the  first  stages  of  roup. 
It  is  the  general  opinion,  however,  that  it  is 
not  necessary  to  feed  it  if  the  proper  conditions 
are  maintained. 

How  to  feed. — If  those  who  have  the  responsi- 
bility of  providing  food  for  fowls  and  other  stock 
will  bear  in  mind  that  food  is  given  for  a  two- 
fold purpose,  it  will  help  them  to  appreciate  the 
importance  of  a  bountiful  supply  of  the  proper 
kind.  Food  sustains  the  physical  organization  of 
the  fowl  and  furnishes  material  for  a  useful  prod- 
uct in  the  form  of  eggs  or  meat,  or  both.  It 
may  also  be  considered  largely  as  the  basis  of 
improvement  in  breeds  and  varieties,  and  is  often 
spoken  of  as  the  cause,  and  breed  as  the  effect. 
While  this  may  not  be  strictly  true  in  all  cases, 
yet  all  authorities  believe  that  food  has  been  a 
most  potent  factor  in  the  improvement  of  breeds 
— if  not  the  chief  cause. 


Food  and  Egy  Production  175 

The  profit  in  feeding  comes  from  the  food 
consumed  in  excess  of  that  required  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  body.  If  the  individual 
makes  good  use  of  the  food  consumed,  that 
which  is  not  required  for  maintenance  should 
be  directed  chiefly  toward  the  production  of  mer- 
chantable articles.  It  should  not  be  held,  how- 
ever, that  all  of  the  food  consumed  in  excess  of 
that  required  to  maintain  the  body  may  be  devoted 
to  the  production  of  eggs  or  meat.  As  the  ration 
is  increased,  the  work  required  of  the  fowls  to 
digest  and  assimilate  this  food  is  also  increased. 
So  no  matter  whether  the  animal  be  a  hen  or  a 
cow,  the  physical  organization  is  required  to  do 
more  work  on  a  full  ration  than  on  a  light  one, 
and  food  is  required  to  supply  energy  for  this 
increased  work. 

There  is  little  danger  of  overfeeding  laying- 
hens  if  the  proper-  kind  of  food  is  given.  The 
difficulty  lies  in  not  being  able  to  secure  fowls 
that  are  sufficiently  strong  to  digest  and  assimi- 
late enough  food  to  give  the  greatest  profit.  A 
strong  tendency  toward  egg  laying,  a  vigorous 
constitution,  and  an  abundance  of  suitable  food, 
are  three  prime  essentials  for  profitable  egg  pro- 
duction. Other  things  being  equal,  those  fowls 
that  are  able  to  digest  and  assimilate  the  largest 
quantities  of  food  will  prove  the  most  profitable. 

It    is    the    practice    of    the    most    successful 


176  Farm  Poultry 

poultrymen  to  feed  a  part  of  the  daily  grain 
ration  ground,  and  moistened  with  either  milk  or 
.watei'.  It  is  held  to  be  more  economical  to  do 
a  part  of  the  grinding  by  steam  or  water  power 
than  to  require  it  all  to  be  done  within  the  body 
of  the  fowl.  In  other  words,  water  or  some 
other  power  is  thought  to  be  cheaper  than  the 
muscular  power  of  the  laying  hen.  It  is  true 
that  the  hen  is  required  to  take  considerable  ex- 
ercise, but  this*  exercise  does  not  materially  aid 
in  grinding  the  food.  V 

Some  experiments  have  been  made  which  tend 
to  show  that  there  is  considerable  to  be  gained 
in  feeding  ground  or  soft  food.  The  following 
is  taken  from  an  experiment  station  publica- 
tion:* "Two  pens  of  laying  hens,  one  of  a  large 
and  the  other  of  a  small  breed,  having  a  ration 
the  grain  of  "which  was  whole,  ate  during  their 
second  year  somewhat  more  food  at  a  little 
greater  cost  than  two  similar  pens  having  a 
ration  in  which  half  the  grain  was  ground  arid 
moistened. 

"Cochin  hens  having  the  whole  grain  ration 
laid  much  better  than  those  having  the  ground 
grain,  although  neither  lot  laid  at  a  profitable 
rate  during  the  second  year.  Leghorn  hens 
having  a  ration  in  which  the  grain  was  whole 
consumed  on  the  average  for  two  years  over  20 

*  Bulletin  No.  106,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Ground   Food  177 

per  cent  more  food  for  the  same  egg  production 
than  did  similar  hens  having  half  the  grain  in 
their  ration  ground  and  moistened.  The  hens 
having  whole  grain  had  on  the  average  for  two 
years  6.4  pounds  of  water -free  food  for  every 
pound  of  eggs  produced.  Those  having  ground 
grain  had  on  the  average  for  two  years  5.3 
pounds  of  water -free  food  for  every  pound  of 
eggs  produced." 

Poultrymen  do  not  agree  as  to  the  time  of 
day  when  the  soft  food  should  be  fed.  Some 
hold  that  such  food  should  be  given  in  the 
morning,  for  the  reason  that  the  fowls  have  been 
on  the  perches  during  the  night  and  have  largely 
digested  the  food  which  was  consumed  the  day 
before,  and  consequently  have  comparatively 
empty  crops  and  digestive  organs.  In  order  that 
the  morning  meal  may  be  rapidly  and  easily  di- 
gested they  feed  only  ground  and  moistened 
grain.  They  also  hold  that,  if  the  fowls  are  to 
be  fed  three  times  a  day,  whole  grain  should 
be  fed  at  noon  and  at  night.  Other  careful 
observers  maintain  that  whole  grain  should 
be  given  in  the  morning  and  that  the  ground 
food  should  be  given  at  noon.  It  is  probably 
more  important  to  feed  a  part  of  the  grain  food 
in  a  ground  or  soft  condition  than  it  is  to  feed 
this  food  at  any  particular  time  of  day. 

All  poultrymen  believe  that  it  is  important  to 


178  Farm  Poultry 

give  the  laying  hens  considerable  exercise,  par- 
ticularly during  the  winter  months,  and  when  they 
are  more  or  less  closely  confined.  This  may  be 
accomplished,  in  part,  by  requiring  them  to 
scratch  in  the  litter  for  their  grain  food. 

Equal  parts  of  corn  and  oats  ground,  mixed 
with  an  equal  weight  of  wheat  bran  and  fine 
middlings,  make  an  excellent  soft  food  when 


Fig.  55.     Feed  trough  protected  by  a  revolving  rod. 

moistened  with  milk  or  water.  That  is,  the 
bran  and  fine  middlings  together  constitute  one- 
half  the  weight  of  the  ration.  The  proportion  of 
bran  and  fine  -middlings  may  be  varied  somewhat. 
If  the  mixture  appears  too  sticky,  less  middlings 
and  more  bran  should  be  used.  It  is  usually 
preferred  thoroughly  wet;  that  is,  enough  milk 
or  water  should  be  added  to  the  ground  grain 
to  wet  all  of  the  grain  after  it  is  thoroughly 
stirred.  It  will  be  necessary  to  feed  this  food  in 


Ground   Food  and   Feeding  Troughs  179 

troughs.  Considerable  ingenuity  has  been  exer- 
cised in  devising  convenient  troughs  that  will 
keep  the  food  clean.  A  swinging  trough,  or  one 
protected  by  an  easy -turning  rod,  as  shown  in 
the  illustrations,  will  answer .  the  purpose  very 
well.  See  Figs.  55  and  56.  Any  safe  and  con- 
venient arrangement  that  will  prevent  the  fowls 
from  perching  on  the  sides  of  the  troughs,  will 
meet  the  requirements  of  a  satisfactory  device. 


Fig.  56.    A  swinging  feed  trough. 

Many  poultrymen  prefer  to  feed  animal  meal 
in  this  soft  food.  From  one  to  two  pounds  of 
animal  meal  per  day  should  suffice  for  twenty- 
five  hens,  particularly  if  milk  is  used  to  moisten 
the  ground  grain.  A  little  linseed  meal,  which 
is  particularly  valuable  during  the  moulting  pe- 
riod, may  also  be  added.  Horsemen  have  long 
known  that  when  animals  are  shedding  their 
coats,  a  little  linseed  meal  added  to  their  ration 
hastens  the  shedding  of  the  old  coat  and  gives 
more  luster  to  the  new,  and  so  poultrymen  find 
that  a  little  of  this  meal  during  the  moulting 


180  Farm  Poultry 

period  aids  in  the  production  of  the  new  coat  of 
feathers. 

The  whole  grain  should  be  fed  once  or  twice  a 
day  and  scattered  in  the  litter  during  the  cold 
months  or  whenever  the  fowls  do  not  have  ample 
opportunity  to  take  exercise  out  of  doors.  This 
grain  may  be  scattered  in  the  litter  at  noon  and 
given  in  such  quantity  that  the  fowls  will  eat 
it  up  clean.  In  fact,  they  should  not  be  given 
quite  all  they  want  to  eat.  They  should  be  made 
to  scratch  over  the  litter  and  pick  out  the  last 
kernels.  At  night,  about  an  hour  before  they  go 
on  the  perches,  the  last  meal  of  the  day  may  be 
given  them.  This  should  be  given  in  such  quan- 
tities that  it  will  all  be  consumed  and  still  afford 
the  fowls  about  all  they  care  to  eat.  In  other 
words,  they  should  go  on  the  perches  at  night 
with  full  crops.  During  the  night  they  have 
nothing  to  do  except  to  digest  and  assimilate 
the  evening  meal. 

Litter.  —  Straw,  either  cut  or  whole,  makes  a 
good  litter  for  poultry  houses  for  both  winter  and 
summer.  Hay  may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose 
if  it  is  more  convenient  or  cheaper  than  straw. 
Buckwheat  hulls  are  preferred  by  many  on  ac- 
count of  cheapness.  In  the  vicinity  of  mills, 
where  large  quantities  of  buckwheat  are  floured, 
buckwheat  hulls  may  be  obtained  cheaply. 
Shredded  corn  fodder  makes  satisfactory  litter, 


Food  and  Exercise  181 

although  it  is  somewhat  more  expensive  and 
answers  the  purpose  no  better  than  straw.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  months,  the  floor  of  the  poultry 
house  should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  a  few 
inches  with  some  kind  of  litter.  This  litter 
should  be  changed  whenever  it  becomes  soiled 
or  damp. 

FEEDING  FOR  MEAT  OR  FATTENING 

Feeding  fowls  for  meat  production  may  prop- 
erly be  discussed  under  two  rather  distinct  heads 
so  far  as  exercise  is  concerned:  fattening  ma- 
ture fowls,  and  feeding  young  growing  fowls  that 
are  to  be  sent  to  the  market  when  a  few  months 
old.  Mature  fowls  will  require  little  or  no  ex- 
ercise during  the  process  of  fattening,  while 
young  fowls  that  are  growing  rapidly  will  re- 
quire considerable  exercise  in  order  to  keep  them 
in  a  healthy  and  vigorous  condition,  except  per- 
haps for  a  short  time  during  the  last  of  the 
fattening  period,  which  is  sometimes  called  "the 
finishing." 

Whenever  a  choice  quality  of  meat  is  to  be 
produced,  little  or  no  exercise  should  be  given 
for  a  few  weeks  immediately  preceding  the  kill- 
ing. When  the  fowl  is  shut  up  or  closely  con- 
fined, the  muscles  soften  and  the  flesh  becomes 
more  tender.  It  is  conceded  by  those  who  most 


182  Farm   Poultry 

highly  prize  tender  flesh  that  close  confinement, 
without  exercise,  greatly  improves  the  quality. 
It  is  also  true  that  fowls  under  these  conditions 
take  on  fat  rapidly  if  the  close  confinement  is  not 
continued  too  long.  Little  exercise  with  plenty 
of  pure  air  and  an  abundance  of  soft  food,  are 
among  the  chief  essentials  for  economical  fatten- 
ing. If  it  is  desired  to  fatten  fowls  as  quickly 
as  possible,  the  ration  should  consist  largely  of 
corn.  Ground  oats,  wheat,  buckwheat,  and  bar- 
ley may  also  be  used  to  some  extent.  A  variety 
of  foods  undoubtedly  will  serve  a  good  purpose 
in  maintaining  a  good  appetite  somewhat  longer 
than  could  be  maintained  with  but  one  or  two 
kinds  of  grain.  After  fowls  have  been  kept  for 
some  time  on  soft  food,  whole  grain  cannot  form 
a  considerable  portion  of  their  ration  without  a 
loss.  The  organs  for  grinding  and  digesting  hard 
food  have  been  so  long  in  disuse  that  they  are 
quite  unfitted  to  perform  the  office  required  of 
them  when  hard  or  whole  grain  is  provided. 

The  kind  of  food  and  the  form  in  which  it  is 
to  be  given  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  kind  of 
fowls.  Some  successful  poultrymen,  who  make  a 
specialty  of  young  fowls  of  fine  quality,  are  ac- 
customed to  feed  animal  meal  in  such  proportion 
that  it  will  form  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the  total 
ration.  No  one  would  think  of  using  so  large  a 
proportion  of  animal  meal  in  compounding  a  ra- 


Uniformity  in   Size  Desirable  183 

tion  for  fattening  matured  fowls.  In  one  case,  the 
object  is  to  produce  large  quantities  of  tender 
flesh;  in  the  other,  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
flesh  by  confinement,  and  to  induce  the  fowls  to 
fatten  readily. 

Separate  the  sexes. — The  sexes  should  be  sep- 
arated before  the  fattening  period  begins.  It  is 
always  advisable  to  have  the  individuals  as  nearly 
uniform  as  possible  as  regards  age  and  size.  Un- 
even flocks  are  not  nearly  so  satisfactory  to  feed 
as  uniform  ones  and  are  quite  as  unsatisfactory  to 
sell,  particularly  if  they  are  sent  to  market  alive. 

If  it  is  desired  to  fatten  cocks  or  cockerels 
that  show  a  disposition  to  fight,  they  should  be 
confined  in  coops  which  are  provided  with  slat 
bottoms  or  bottoms  made  of  poles  near  enough 
together  so  that  the  fowls  cannot  drop  between 
them .  These  coops  should  be  placed  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  ground,  so  that  the  droppings  will 
not  foul  them.  While  attempts  may  be  made  to 
fight,  yet  as  one  or  both  of  the  combatants  will 
almost  surely  step  between  the  slats  the  combat 
will  not  be  carried  far. 

Cramming.— The  English  and  French  resort  to 
the  system  of  forced  feeding,  known  as  cramming, 
for  the  production  of  the  choicest  poultry  for  the 
London  and  Paris  markets.  The  English  learned 
this  process  from  the  French,  and  now  carry  it 
on  to  a  large  extent  in  some  parts  of  southern 


184  Farm  Poultry 

England.  The  Heathfield  district  in  Sussex 
county,  England,  is  noted  for  the  large  quan- 
tities of  poultry  that  are  fattened  for  the  London 
markets  by  this  process.  Young  birds  four  or  five 
months  old  are  placed  in  coops,  which  are  raised 
about  three  feet  from  the  ground.  These  coops 
have  slat  sides  and  bottoms  and  are  protected 


Fig.  57.    An  English  method  of  arranging  coops,  where 
cramming  is  practiced. 

from  the  weather  by  a  roof.  Each  coop  is  large 
enough  to  hold  comfortably  four  or  five  birds. 
See  Fig.  57.  For  the  first  ten  days  after  placing 
the  fowls  in  the  coops,  they  are  fed  twice  a  day 
soft  food  from  little  troughs  suspended  within 
easy  reach.  After  they  have  eaten  all  they  will, 
the  troughs  are  removed  and  no  food  is  offered 
until  the  next  meal.  The  food  consists  largely  of 
ground  oats,  with  the  hulls  removed,  and  ground 


Cramming 


185 


•y 

-•$jgmmm»i4& 


barley.  To  this  is  added  a  little  tallow  so  that 
each  fowl  may  receive  about  a  teaspoonful  a  day. 
The  fowls  are  fed  in  this  manner  for  about  ten 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  they  will  not  eat 
so  much  on  account  of  loss  of  appetite.  They 
are  then  fattened 
by  the  cramming 
process,  the  food 
being  forced  into 
the  crop  by  means 
of  a  machine. 
Fig.  58  illustrates 
a  cramming  ma- 
chine similar  to 
those  used  in  the 
great  poultry  dis- 
tricts of  England. 
The  food  is  mixed 
with  milk  or  water 
to  the  consistency 
of  thick  porridge; 
that  is,  just  about 
as  thick  as  it  will  pour  well.  This  is  placed  in 
a  receptacle  or  hopper  in  the  machine  and  is 
forced  through  a  rubber  tube  into  the  crop  of  the 
chicken.  This  tube  is  forced  down  the  chicken's 
neck  and  a  light  pressure  on  a  lever  with  the  foot 
forces  the  food,  while  the  hand  on  the  outside  of 
the  crop  will  detect  the  proper  quantity.  Men 


Fig.  58.    An  English  cramming  machine. 


186  Farm  Poultry 

operating  this  machine  become  very  skilful.  A 
good  operator  can  feed  thirty  dozen  fowls  per 
hour.  This  cramming  process  is  continued  for 
about  ten  days,  when  the  fowls  are  dressed  and 
sent  to  market.  During  the  major  part  of  the  fat- 
tening season  the  coops  are  placed  out  of  doors. 
See  Fig.  57.  When  the  weather  becomes  too  cool, 
indoor  coops  are  used. 

Before  fowls  are  placed  in  fattening  pens  they 
should  be  given  a  thorough  dressing  of  sulfur  or 
some  other  insecticide  to  kill  the  vermin.  This  is 
particularly  essential,  as  the  fowls  kept  in  coops 
have  no  opportunity  to  combat  these  pests.  Lay- 
ing hens  and  other  fowls  should  be  provided  with 
dust  baths,  but  when  fowls  are  placed  in  close 
confinement  for  fattening,  it  is  not  feasible  to 
provide  baths.  Cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance for  these  confined  fowls.  The  coops  or 
cages  of  fattening  fowls  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  filthy,  neither  should  they  be  too  hot  in 
summer  or  too  cool  in  winter. 

The  French  and  English  use  oats  and  buck- 
wheat largely  as  fattening  foods.  They  prefer 
fowls  having  light- colored  flesh,  with  white  skin. 
Americans  prefer  yellow  skin  and  flesh.  Corn  is, 
therefore,  to  be  preferred  in  this  country  as  a 
fattening  food  to  wheat,  barley,  or  buckwheat.  It 
not  only  produces  the  desired  product  but  is  the 
cheapest  food  that  the  market  affords. 


CHAPTER    X 
INCUBATORS  AND   BROODERS 

WHETHER  it  is  best  to  use  incubators  on 
farms  where  only  small  flocks  of  fowls  are  kept, 
is  often  a  difficult  question  to  decide,  particu- 
larly for  those  who  are  familiar  with  only  the 
natural  method  of  incubation.  As  the  adoption 
of  modern  methods  includes  not  only  the  pur- 
chase of  an  incubator  and  a  brooder  to  care 
for  the  young  fowls,  but  also  carries  with  it  a 
marked  change  in  their  management,  it  is  a  ques- 
tion of  considerable  importance. 

INCUBATORS 

Before  an  incubator  is  purchased  for  the 
farm,  it  should  be  understood  that  it  will  be 
necessary  to  devote  more  time  and  labor  to  its 
management  than  is  usually  given  to  natural  in- 
cubation. Even  the  most  successful  and  experi- 
enced poultrymen  feel  that  there  is  yet  much  for 
them  to  learn,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  best 
results  with  modern  appliances  for  hatching  and 
rearing  the  various  kinds  of  farm  poultry.  The 

(187) 


188  Farm  Poultry 

successful  management  of  incubators  requires 
close  attention  and  the  best  thought  of  the 
operator.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  business  that 
should  be  thoroughly  learned.  It  should  not  be 
entered  into  with  the  idea  that  it  is  a  simpler 
or  easier  method  of  hatching  eggs  than  the  older 
and  rather  slow  method  of  natural  incubation. 

If  only  small  flocks,  consisting  of  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  fowls,  are  to  be  kept,  probably  it 
will  not  pay  the  farmer  who  expects  but  a  small 
cash  revenue  from  his  fowls  to  attempt  artificial 
incubation.  Particularly  is  this  true  if  his  fowls 
belong  to  one  of  the  so-called  general -purpose 
breeds.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  desired  to 
keep  a  larger  flock  which  consists  principally  or 
entirely  of  one  of  the  distinctively  egg  breeds,  it 
undoubtedly  will  be  best  in  the  end  if  the  art  of 
artificial  incubation  is  thoroughly  learned.  The 
natural  processes  of  incubation  are  too  slow  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  modern  poultry -keeper 
who  is  extensively  engaged  in  the  business. 
When  one  undertakes  to  produce  eggs  exclu- 
sively and  desires  as  many  as  possible  in  the 
winter,  pullets  will,  of  course,  be  largely  kept 
for  this  purpose,  and  these  cannot  be  depended 
on  for  natural  incubation.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, it  will  be  advisable  to  resort  to  the  use 
of  incuba.tors  and  brooders,  by  means  of  which 
the  flock  can  be  maintained.  It  would  be  quite 


Incubation  189 

impossible  for  the  poultrymen  of  modern  times 
to  maintain  large  flocks  of  young  birds  for  egg 
production  and  rear  chickens  by  the  natural 
method. 

AKTIFICIAL     INCUBATION 

The  art  of  hatching  eggs  by  means  of  arti- 
ficial heat  has  been  known  for  a  long  time. 
Early  travelers  in  Egypt  gave  accounts  of  ovens 
that  were  used  for  hatching  the  eggs  of  ducks, 
geese,  and  chickens.  Heat  was  supplied  by  fer- 
menting manure.  Remains  of  these  ovens  are 
said  to  have  been  seen  in  comparatively  recent 
times.  It  is  said  that  the  French  became  inter- 
ested in  artificial  incubation  as  early  as  the  fif- 
teenth century,  but  not  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  was  use  made  of  hot 
water  as  a  means  of  conveying  heat  for  artificial 
incubation.  From  this  time  until  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  comparatively  little  ad- 
vancement was  made  in  the  construction  of  incu- 
bators. Since  1870  many  improvements  have 
been  made  and  a  large  number  of  incubators 
have  been  placed  on  the  market. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  modern  incubator, 
the  idea  has  been  largely  to  imitate  nature.  As 
the  hen  applies  heat  above  the  egg,  so  nearly  all 
incubators  apply  heat  to  the  egg -chamber  from 
above.  In  natural  incubation  the  hen  provides 


190  Farm  Poultry 

a  nest  or  shallow  receptacle  for  the  eggs,  usually 
on  the  ground.  After  laying  a  number  of  eggs, 
the  hen  becomes  "broody"  and  commences  to  sit, 
or  incubate.  At  this  time  the  under  part  of  the 
hen's  body  is  more  abundantly  supplied  with 
blood  than  during  the  laying  or  moulting  pe- 
riods. In  other  words,  what  is  known  as  the 
organ  of  incubation,  or  plexus,  most  fully  de- 
velops at  this  time.  This  consists  of  a  network 
of  arterial  blood-vessels,  near  the  surface  of  the 
body,  which  bring  greater  heat  to  the  eggs  than 
would  otherwise  be  supplied.  In  order  to  per- 
fect systems  of  artificial  incubation,  many  per- 
sons have  made  a  close  study  of  the  natural 
method  and  have  been  led  to  adopt  some  devices 
or  practices  which  were  accidental  or  necessary 
to  the  hen,  but  not  essential  to  perfect  incu- 
bation. The  fact  that  hens  sometimes  leave  the 
nest  in  the  early  morning  to  search  for  food, 
when  the  grass  is  still  wet  with  dew,  and  upon 
returning  moisten  their  eggs  with  their  wet 
feathers,  has  led  some  to  sprinkle  the  eggs  at 
various  periods  during  the  process  of  incubation. 
This,  however,  has  been  shown  to  be  unnec- 
essary, except  possibly  in  localities  where  the  air 
is  very  dry.  Poultrymen  have  also  learned  by 
close  observation  that,  in  the  nest,  particularly 
as  the  period  of  incubation  advances,  the  eggs 
are  arranged  mostly  with  the  large  end  upper- 


Incubation  and  Incubators  191 

most  or  toward  the  outer  side  of  the  nest.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  form  of  the  nest  and  the 
fact  that  the  small  end  of  the  egg  is  heavier  in 
proportion  to  its  size  than  the  large  end;  that 
is,  the  center  of  gravity  approaches  the  small 
end,  which  is,  as  incubation  progresses,  due  to 
the  development  of  the  air-chamber  in  the  large 
end.  The  fact  that  the  eggs  are  arranged  with 
the  large  end  uppermost,  has  led  some  persons 
to  place  the  eggs  in  the  incubator  trays  in  a 
similar  position.  Without  doubt,  the  position  of 
the  eggs  does  not  have  any  particular  influence 
on  the  hatching. 

Many  tests  have  been  made  to  determine  the 
actual  temperature  of  eggs  when  natural  incu- 
bation is  taking  place.  These  tests  show  a  con- 
siderable variation  until  the  ninth  or  tenth  day. 
Until  this  time  the  eggs  seldom  reach  100°.* 
Although  the  temperature  of  the  fowl  is  usually 
above  106°,  yet  the  temperature  of  the  eggs  is 
seldom  raised  above  103°,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
heat  is  applied  only  on  one  side. 

Selection  of  an  incubator. — An  inexperienced 
person  should  exercise  the  same  care  and  judg- 
ment in  selecting  an  incubator  that  would  be 
exercised  when  purchasing  a  mowing  machine  or 
other  expensive  implement.  It  is  no  longer 
thought  that  one  particular  kind  of  mowing 

*" Incubation  and  Its  Natural  Laws,"  Cyphers. 


192 


Farm  Poultry 


machine  is  far  superior  to  all  others.  Sim- 
ilarly, it  may  be  said  that  there  are  many 
good  incubators  on  the  market.  A  well-made 
machine,  similar  to  those  in  use  by  successful 


Fig.  59.    One  hundred-and-eighty-egg  incubaior. 


poultrymen,  will  probably  give  satisfaction  after 
the  business  is  once  thoroughly  learned.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  machines  do  not  think,  and 
that  the  good  judgment  of  the  operator  is  one 
of  the  most  important  essentials  in  artificial  in- 
cubation. While  incubators  are  often  placed 
before  the  public  with  somewhat  flaring  an- 


Care  of  Incubators 


193 


nouncements,  stating  that  the  operation  of  the 
machine  is  most  simple,  it  should  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  most  successful  operators  are 
those  who  have  given  the  business  their  best 


Fig.  60.     One-hundrecl-egg  incubator. 

thought   and    attention    throughout    a    long   ex- 
perience . 

While  there  is  much  to  be  learned  about  arti- 
ficial incubation,  yet  the  beginner  cannot  afford 
to  ignore  the  knowledge  which  has  been  gained 
by  the  experience  of  others.  Manufacturers  of 
incubators  have  studied  their  own  machines  more 

M 


194  Farm   Poultry 

or  less  carefully  and  are,  therefore,  able  to  give 
some  valuable  information.  Those  who  are  about 
to  invest  in  an  incubator  should  make  the  most 
of  the  information  given  by  manufacturers  and 
others,  and  expect  to  learn  many  valuable  lessons 
by  their  own  experience. 

Placing  the  incubator.  —  On  many  farms  it  is 
not  easy  to  prepare  a  suitable  place  for  an  in- 
cubator.. In  selecting  a  location  four  essentials 
should  be  kept  in  mind,  namely,  ventilation,  even 
temperature  of  room,  convenience,  and  freedom 
from  danger  of  fire.  Most  incubators  are  heated 
by  lamps,  and  if  they  are  placed  in  a  small 
room,  considerable  ventilation  will  be  required 
in  order  to  keep  the  air  pure. 

An  even  temperature  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance, although  some  tests  with  modern  in- 
cubators tend  to  show  that  the  best  hatches  do 
not  necessarily  result  from  the  most  uniform 
temperature  of  the  egg  chamber.  Uniform  tem- 
perature is  desired,  however,  and  is  easiest  to 
maintain  when  the  temperature  of  the  room  in 
which  the  incubator  is  placed  varies  least. 

It  is  important  that  the  incubator  be  placed 
in  a  room  in  which  the  air  is  in  a  normal  con- 
dition,—that  is,  neither  too  dry  nor  saturated 
with  moisture.  The  ideal  condition  as  to  purity 
will  approximate  the  air  out-of-doors  where 
there  is  a  free  circulation.  The  air  should  also 


Incubator  Rooms  195 

contain  at  least  a  moderate  amount  of  mois- 
ture. The  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmos- 
phere should  control,  to  some  extent,  the  venti- 
lation of  the  incubator.  It  is  desirable  that  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  moisture  of  the 
egg  be  evaporated  during  the  process  of  incuba- 
tion. If  the  air  is  very  dry  a  little  ventilation 
will  be  sufficient  to  secure  the  desired  evapora- 
tion, while  a  moist  atmosphere  would  require 
much  more  ventilation  to  secure  the  same  result. 
The  moist  air  of  a  wet  cellar,  which  contains 
decaying  fruit  and  vegetables,  is  not  suited  to 
incubation. 

Whenever  kerosene  oil  lamps  are  kept  contin- 
ually burning  for  weeks  at  a  time,  as  they  are 
in  incubators,  there  is  some  danger  from  fire. 
It  is  true  that  the  modern  incubator  lamps  are 
well  adapted  to  the  purpose,  but  the  element  of 
danger  from  fire  cannot  be  said  to  be  wholly 
eliminated  so  long  as  these  lamps  are  permitted 
to  burn  in  wooden  buildings  without  the  watch- 
fulness of  an  attendant. 

The  convenience  of  an  incubator  room  is  prob- 
ably one  of  the  least  of  the  essentials,  yet  it  is 
of  so  much  importance  that  it  should  not  be 
wholly  overlooked.  Everything  considered,  prob- 
ably a  dry,  airy  cellar  or  half-  basement  will  make 
the  most  desirable  location  for  an  incubator  on 
the  farm.  Many  incubator  rooms  have  been  con- 


196  Farm  Poultry 

structed  in  excavations  which  were  sufficiently 
deep  to  permit  of  most  of  the  room  being  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  See  Figs.  61  and  62. 
This  method  will  undoubtedly  secure  an  even 
temperature,  but  the  room  is  likely  to  be  venti- 
lated with  difficulty  unless  special  provisions  are 
made.  During  the  warm  days  of  spring  and  early 


Fig.  61.     Au  incubator  house— Rhode  Island  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

summer  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  ventilate  a 
basement  without  causing  drafts,  which  would 
interfere  with  the  lamps  and  prevent  them  from 
burning  steadily.  An  incubator  room  should  be 
comparatively  free  from  drafts. 

Care  of  incubators. —  Incubators  should  receive 
the  same  care  and  careful  adjustment  that  are 
given  to  other  delicate  machines.  The  accurate 
working  of  the  incubator  will  depend  very  largely 


Running    the    Incubator 


197 


on  the  treatment  it  receives  from  the  operator 
or  attendant.  Whoever  has  charge  of  an  incuba- 
tor should  plan  to  give  it  a  careful  inspection  at 
regular  intervals.  It  should  not  be  necessary, 
however,  to  visit  an  incubator  oftener  than  twice 
a  day.  It  is  always  well  for  the  beginner  to  run 
tho  incubator  for  a  few  days  before  filling  it  with 


Fig.  62.    An  incubator  building  with  poultry  house  attached- 
Cornell  University. 

eggs,  in  order  that  it  may  be  properly  adjusted, 
and  also  to  give  the  operator  a  little  experience 
before  risking  loss. 

After  the  machine  is  adjusted  and  the  atten- 
dant has  gained  some  knowledge  of  operating  it, 
the  eggs  may  be  put  in,  although  it  is  well  to 
place  them  in  a  warm  room  for  a  few  hours 
previous,  to  prevent  so  great  a  change  in  the 
temperature  of  the  incubator  as  would  result  from 


198  Farm  Poultry 

the  use  of  cold  eggs.  It  will  be  of  some  advan- 
tage to  the  beginner  to  keep  temperature  records 
of  the  machine  by  means  of  both  an  incubator 
thermometer  and  a  registering  thermometer. 
These  records  will  sometimes  be  of  value  in  reg- 
ulating the  machine  for  subsequent  hatches. 

BBOODEES 

If  artificial  incubation  is  employed,  some 
provision  must  be  made  for  the  care  of  the 
little  chickens  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  incuba- 
tor. Various  kinds  of  machines  have  been  de- 
vised for  this  purpose,  which  vary  considerably 
in  regard  to  efficiency,  but  some  kind  of  an 
artificial  brooder  must  be  provided.  From  the 
great  variety  of  brooders  on  the  market  the 
farmer  or  poultryman  has  an  opportunity  to  make 
a  selection  according  to  his  wants  and  best  judg- 
ment. Brooders  vary  greatly  in  size,  as  some  of 
the  smaller  ones  accommodate  no  more  than  fifty 
chickens,  while  the  larger  ones  are  devised  to 
furnish  accommodations  for  many  hundreds  of 
young  fowls.  For  convenience,  we  may  separate 
the  various  kinds  of  brooders  into  two  classes. 
These  classes  represent  two  entirely  different 
systems  of  furnishing  heat  and  providing  for 
the  comforts  of  the  little  chickens.  One  class 
supplies  heat  by  means  of  hot  water  pipes.  See 


Fig.  OH.     House  for  brooders  and  incubators;    also  breeding  pens- 
New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


tig.  W.     Brooder  house — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

' 


Fig.  65.     A  small  brooder  house  —  Cornell  University.J 


200  Farm    Poultry 

Fig.  66.  Brooders  of  this  kind  are  capable  of 
extension  and  of  providing  heat  for  many  hun- 
dreds of  young  chickens.  The  other  system  is 
represented  fairly  well  by  small  portable  brood- 
ers, which  supply  heat  by  radiation  from  hot  air 


Fig.  66.     Hot  water  pipe  brooders,  covers  of  three  lifted,  man  raising 
the  fourth  —  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

or  from  hot  water  tanks.  These  are  usually 
heated  by  small  oil  lamps  or  by  gas  jets.  The 
pipe  system  is  most  extensively  used  by  poultry- 
men  who  rear  fowls  on  a  somewhat  extensive 
scale.  One  fire,  producing  the  heat  for  many 
hundred  chickens,  gives  to  this  system  an  ad- 
vantage over  the  smaller  brooders  which  require 


Essentials    of  a    Good   Brooder  201 

a  separate  lamp  for  each  small  flock.  Oil  lamps 
require  close  attention,  and  even  then  they  are 
likely  to  give  more  or  less  trouble  by  some  im- 
perfection in  the  burner  or  deposit  of  soot  or 
carbon  in  some  parts  of  the  flue,  which  may 
lead  to  overheating  and,  in  some  cases,  may 
produce  disastrous  results.  Brooders,  and  even 
poultry  houses,  have  been  set  on  fire  by  careless 
or  improper  handling  of  brooder  lamps. 

Some  of  the  most  important  requisites  of  a 
good  brooder  may  be  enumerated  as  follows: 

1.  Capable  of  maintaining  a  proper  tempera- 

ture. 

2.  Be  easily  cleaned. 

3.  Provide  good  ventilation. 

4.  Of   such   form   that  all   the  chickens    may 

readily  be  seen. 

5.  Must  be  dry. 

6.  Economical  of  heat. 

7.  Easy  of  construction. 

(1)  A  satisfactory  brooder  must  maintain  a 
proper  temperature  for  delicate  little  chickens. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  maintain  an  even  tem- 
perature, from  90°  to  100°,  for  the  first  week. 
After  that  a  somewhat  lower  temperature  will 
be  required.  Breeds  of  fowls  that  feather  early 
in  life  do  not  require  so  high  a  temperature 
in  the  brooder  after  two  or  three  weeks.  The 
temperature  should  always  be  so  high  that  the 


202  Farm   Poultry 

chickens  are  not  inclined  to  huddle  together  to 
keep  warm.  Huddling  indicates  that  the  tem- 
perature is  too  low  for  best  results.  The  amateur 


Fig.  67.    An  outdoor  brooder. 

poultry  man  finds  it  difficult  to  overcome  the  ten- 
dency toward  bowel  disorders  in  little  chickens. 
One  of  the  potent  causes  of  these  disorders  is  a 
cold  brooder  or  frequent  chills. 

(2)  A  brooder  should  be  easily  cleaned.  There 
are  several  reasons  for  this.  The  labor  of  clean- 
ing is  an  important  item.  The  time  occupied  is 
frequently  of  considerable  importance,  and  then, 
if  the  brooder  is  not  readily  cleaned,  it  is 
much  more  likely  to  be  neglected,  particularly 
during  the  busiest  seasons  of  the  year.  A  brooder 
should  be  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  swept 
clean,  preferably  with  an  ordinary  broom.  The 
floor  should  be  kept  littered,  so  that  all  the 
manure  may  be  readily  swept  out.  As  filth  and 


Essentials   of  a    Good   Brooder  203 

dampness  are  two  great  causes  of  failure  with 
the  amateur  poultry  man,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  poultry  houses  and  brooders  be 
kept  as  clean  as  possible. 

(3)  The  air  in  a  brooder  will  become  foul  if 
not  changed  frequently.  Usually,  when  suffi- 
cient heat  is  supplied  to  give  proper  temperature, 
ventilation  is  also  secured;  but  occasionally  the 
source  of  heat  is  barely  sufficient  .to  maintain  the 
required  temperature  with  the  least  possible  ven- 
tilation. Then,  in  order  to  keep  the  chickens 
warm,  ventilation  must  be  cut  off.  Pure  air 
should  be  supplied  at  all  times.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  little  chickens  have  a  high  tem- 


Fig.  68.     An  out-of-door  brooder. 


perature,  that  they  breathe  rapidly,  and  that  the 
supply  of  pure  air  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  them. 

(4)  It   is   important  to   have   the   brooder  so 


204  Farm  Poultry 

arranged  that  all  the  chickens  may  readily  be 
seen  by  the  attendant.  If  dark  and  inconvenient 
corners  are  permitted  to  exist,  weak  chickens 
find  these  nooks  a  place  of  refuge,  and  may  es- 
cape the  attention  of  the  attendant.  As  it  is 
important  that  all  of  the  chickens  be  seen  at 
each  feeding,  the  ease  of  thorough  inspection 
is  of  considerable  importance  in  the  care  of 
brooders. 

(5)  A  brooder   must    be    dry.     At    no  time  in 
the  life  of   the  hen  is  she   so   sensitive  to  mois- 
ture   as    in    the    early   stages   of   her    existence. 
All  parts  of  the  brooder  should  be  kept  dry  and 
clean.    Whenever  the  floor  of  the  brooder  becomes 
moist,  some  means  should  be  taken  at  once  to  cor- 
rect the  evil.     There  should  be  sufficient  bottom 
heat  or  enough  heat  near  the  floor  to  keep  it  dry. 
Too   much    bottom  heat  is  objected  to   by  many 
poultrymen.     A  somewhat  popular  belief  is  held 
that  bottom  heat,  if  considerable,  is  likely  to  pro- 
duce what  is  known  as  "leg  weakness." 

(6)  It  is  of  some  importance  to  have  a  brooder 
that   is   economical  of  heat,  or,  in  other  words, 
one  that  makes  good  use  of  the  fuel  consumed. 
The  provision  of  fuel  is  an  item  of  expense. 

(7)  It  is  of  considerable  importance   that  the 
brooder   be   simply  constructed.      Machines   that 
are  more  or  less  difficult  to  build  are  necessarily 
more  expensive  than  those  that  are  easy  of  con- 


Brooders  205 

struction.  Then,  too,  some  parts  of  the  appliance 
may  require  renewal,  and  if  the  brooder  is  easy 
of  construction  the  farmer  or  poultryman  may 
readily  perform  the  labor  which  otherwise  would 
require  an  additional  expense  in  sending  the  ma- 
chine to  the  factory  for  repairs. 

The  amateur  should  bear  in  mind  that  it  is 
necessary  for  each  person  to  learn  the  business  for 
himself  by  study  and  experience,  that  there  are  no 
hard  and  fast  rules  for  the  selection  and  operation 
of  the  various  kinds  of  brooders.  One  person 
may  succeed  well  with  a  brooder  that  would  prove 
unsatisfactory  in  the  hands  of  another.  One  per- 
son may  learn  how  best  to  operate  a  particular 
machine,  and,  from  his  study  of  the  condition 
of  the  brooder  and  chickens,  soon  learn  how  to 
remedy  the  most  serious  difficulties,  whereas 
another,  through  a  lack  of  sufficient  knowledge 
of  that  particular  brooder,  would  fail  to  secure 
the  essentials  in  rearing  young  fowls.  There  are 
many  brooders  that  are  capable  of  producing  good 
results  if  the  proper  attention  be  given  them; 
but  the  manner  of  caring  for  the  young,  which 
find  in  them  a  home,  is  of  greater  relative  impor- 
tance than  the  particular  construction  of  the  ma- 
chine. 

Home-made  brooders. — It  is  often  desirable  and 
sometimes  necessary  to  construct  at  home  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  appliances  used  in  the 


206  Farm  Poultry 

modern  poultry  yard.  Sometimes  material  is  at 
hand  that  may  be  turned  to  good  advantage  in  the 
construction  of  machines.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  more  chickens  are  hatched  than  were 
provided  for  and  an  extra  brooder  is  needed  for 
the  emergency. 

Satisfactory  brooders  may  be  made  at  home,  at 
a  small  expense  for  materials,  by  any  one  who  is 


Fig.  69.    A  home-made  brooder  in  cross-section. 

able  to  work  well  with  the  most  common  of  car- 
penters' tools.  Dry  goods  boxes  may  be  utilized  to 
good  advantage.  If  a  part  of  a  large  dry  goods  box 
is  placed  bottom  upwards  so  that  the  bottom  will 
form  a  level  floor  about  a  foot  from  the  ground,  a 
good  foundation  for  a  cheap  brooder  is  established. 
In  the  center  of  this  a  square  or  circular  opening 
is  cut,  into  which  is  fitted  a  box  of  tin  which  is  also 
placed  bottom  up.  A  straight- sided  tin  bucket  or 
pail  may  be  used  instead  of  the  tin  box.  If  the 
former  is  used,  a  circular  opening  should  be  made 


Home  Made  Brooders  207 

to  fit  the  pail.  In  the  bottom  of  this  pail  (which 
is  bottom  upwards)  should  be  fitted  a  small  tube 
of  iron  or  tin  to  carry  off  the  smoke  and  gases 
from  the  lamp  which  is  placed  underneath.  On 
the  top  of  the  tin  box  or  pail  is  placed  a  cover  of 
light  boards  which  supports  woolen  or  felt  cur- 
tains. The  illustration  (Fig.  69),  which  shows 
an  indoor  brooder  in  cross  section,  may  aid  in 
the  proper  understanding  of  this  device. 

The  chickens  should  be  confined  by  a  board 
railing  for  several  days,  after  which  they  may 
be  given  an  opportunity  to  take  more  exercise 
than  would  be  permitted  within  the  brooder. 
Little  chickens  should  have  a  chance  to  return 
to  the  brooder  whenever  they  desire  to  do  so. 
The  illustration  shows  a  board  railing,  in  section, 
which  will  effectually  confine  the  chickens  until 
they  require  more  exercise  than  the  brooder  will 
permit.  There  is  also  shown  an  approach  which 
will  provide  a  means  by  which  the  chicks  may 
easily  enter  and  leave  the  brooder,  provided  a 
suitable  opening  be  made  in  the  board  railing. 
The  curtains  mentioned  above  prevent  the  heat 
from  escaping,  and  provide  warm,  comfortable 
compartments  for  the  chicks. 


CHAPTER    XI 

FEEDING  AND   CARE   OF  LITTLE   CHICKENS 

IN  rearing  fowls  it  will  be  found  that  the  at- 
tention given  to  little  chickens  and  the  manner 
of  feeding  them  are  of  the  greatest  importance. 
While  it  is  difficult  and  probably  impossible  to 
satisfactorily  discuss  care  and  feeding  separately, 
yet  it  may  safely  be  said  that  care  and  attention 
are  quite  as  important  as  the  selection  of  food. 

One  successful  poultry -feeder  may  find  it  to 
his  advantage  to  make  use  of  certain  foods,  while 
these  same  foods  in  the  hands  of  others  may  be 
so  misused  that  disappointment  will  surely  result. 
To  further  illustrate,  one  successful  poultrymari 
may  insist  that  comparatively  little  of  certain 
kinds  of  grains  should  be  fed.  Other  success- 
ful feeders  may  make  a  most  satisfactory  use 
of  these  objectionable  grains.  It  is  for  each 
one  to  learn  for  himself  how  to  feed  to  the  best 
advantage  those  foods  which  are  at  hand,  and 
to  learn  how  to  supplement  them  with  others 
if  they  do  not  form  the  desired  combination  of 
themselves.  In  preparing  food  for  little  chick- 
ens, it  will  be  well  to  remember  that  they  are 

(208) 


Food  for   Little   Chickens  209 

delicate  organisms  and  require  careful  handling 
and  suitable  food,  particularly  during  the  first 
few  days  of  their  existence,  or  until  they  become 
strong  enough  to  seek  food  for  themselves. 

FOOD 

The  little  chickens  will  require  no  food  for  the 
first  twenty-four  or  forty- eight  hours  after  hatch- 
ing. A  mistake  is  often  made  in  feeding  them 
frequently  before  the  system  requires  food.  The 
close  observer  will  readily  determine  by  the  action 
of  the  chickens  when  food  is  required.  The  first 
food  should  be  of  such  a  character  that  it  may 
be  readily  digested  without  the  aid  of  grit;  con- 
sequently, soft  food  is  preferred.  '  Stale  bread 
sopped  in  milk  makes  a  most  excellent  food 
for  newly  hatched  chickens.  An  experienced 
poultryman  will  recognize  that  there  is  no  best 
food  for  little  chickens.  There  are  many  good 
kinds,  if  fed  judiciously.  Again,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  manner  of  feeding  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance, and  that  the  attendant  who  fails  to 
study  closely  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
little  chickens  will  fail  to  reach  the  best  results. 
While  stale  bread  dipped  in  milk  makes  an 
excellent  food,  yet  it  may  be  so  treated  as  to  be 
quite  unfit  for  use.  It  should  be  allowed  to  drain, 
after  dipping,  so  that  the  bread  is  only  thor- 


210  Farm  Poultry 

oughly  moistened.  In  this  condition,  if  finely 
crumbled,  it  makes  a  most  satisfactory  food.  On 
the  other  hand,  bread  that  is  fresh  and  not  per- 
fectly baked  will  be  quite  too  sloppy,  if  saturated 
with  milk,  to  prove  satisfactory.  Ground  grain 
may  be  mixed  with  milk  and  fed  to  good  advan- 
tage. If  this  grain  is  mixed  some  time  before  it 
is  to  be  given,  it  will  become  more  thoroughly 
soaked  and  will  be  in  a  much  softer  condition 
than  if  fed  immediately  after  preparing.  This  is 
thought  to  be  of  considerable  importance  by  per- 
sons who  have  had  years  of  experience  in  the 
preparation  of  food  for  little  chickens.  It  prob- 
ably will  not  matter  materially  whether  the  milk 
is  sweet  or  sour.  Sour  milk  is  thought  by  many 
of  the  most  successful  poultry- raisers  to  be  equally 
as  desirable  as  sweet  milk.  Some,  however,  pre- 
fer to  use  chiefly  the  curd  of  sour  milk  in  mixing 
the  soft  food. 

Corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  ground  oats  (with 
the  hulls  removed),  coarse  middlings  and  other 
ground  grains  may  be  used  to  good  advantage, 
if  fed  judiciously.  It  is  not  best  to  give  the 
little  chick  all  it  can  possibly  eat  and  then  re- 
quire it  to  become  ravenously  hungry  before  the 
next  feeding.  Under  natural  conditions  the  young 
chickens  are  seeking  food  during  a  large  portion 
of  the  day  and  at  no  time  are  they  completely 
gorged.  A  little  food  at  frequent  intervals  un- 


Food  for  Little   Chickens  211 

doubtedly  is  best.  If  they  are  given  food  in 
suitable  quantities,  feeding  from  five  to  seven 
times  per  day  will  be  found  to  be  none  too  often 
for  young  chicks.  As  they  become  older  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  feed  so  often.  The  following 
is  quoted  from  an  experiment  station  publication :  * 
"If  skim  milk  be  added  to  the  ration  fed  to 
young  chickens  it  will  increase  the  consumption 
of  other  foods  given.  The  great  increase  in  aver- 
age gain  was  coincident  with  the  periods  when 
the  greatest  amount  of  skim  milk  was  consumed. 
Skim  milk  is  especially  valuable  as  a  food  for 
young  chickens  during  the  hot  dry  weather;  and 
becomes  of  less  importance  as  the  chickens  grow 
older  and  che  weather  becomes  cooler." 

Ground  grain  is  preferred  to  whole  or  cracked 
grain,  and  should  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the 
daily  ration.  Practical  poultry  men  and  experi- 
menters are  fairly  well  agreed  on  this  point.  The 
following  illustrates :  t  "A  ration  consisting  mostly 
of  ordinary  ground  grain  foods  and  containing  no 
whole  grain  was  more  profitably  fed  to  chicks 
than  another  ration  consisting  mostly  of  whole 
grain  and  containing  no  ground  grain.  ...  In 
every  trial  more  food  was  eaten  when  the  ground 
grain  was  fed  than  when  the  whole  grain  was 
fed." 

*  Summary  of  Bulletin  No.  71,  Purdue  University  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

t  Bulletin  No.  126,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


212  Farm  Poultry 

In  addition  to  the  grain  given  to  the  chickens, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  some  animal  food. 
Various  mixtures  of  grain  foods  have  been  com- 
pared to  mixtures  of  grain  and  animal  meal, 
but  the  latter  have  given  the  better  results.  The 
domesticated  hen  seems  to  thrive  best,  in  all 
stages  of  existence,  on  a  ration  which  consists  in 
part  of  animal  food.  "A  ration  in  which  about 
two -fifths  of  the  protein  was  supplied  by  animal 
food  was  much  more  profitably  fed  to  chicks 
than  another  ration  supplying  an  equal  amount 
of  protein,  mostly  from  vegetable  sources,  but 
supplemented  by  skim  milk  curd."* 

Experiments  have  demonstrated  clearly  that  the 
ordinary  grain  foods,  as  usually  fed,  do  not  contain 
sufficient  ash  to  permit  the  most  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  young.  The  following  briefly  states 
the  results  of  somewhat  extended  experiments  at 
the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station :  t 
"  Of  two  rations  which  contained  practically  the 
same  proportions  of  the  ordinarily  considered 
groups  of  constituents,  but  different  amounts  of 
mineral  matter,  one  wholly  of  vegetable  origin 
proved  much  inferior  for  growing  chicks  to  the 
other  ration,  higher  in  ash  content,  containing 
animal  food.  When  the  deficiency  of  mineral 
matter  was  made  good  by  the  addition  of  bone 

*  Bulletin  No.  149,  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment   Station, 
t  Summary  of  Bulletin  No.  171, 


Food  and  Exercise  213 

ash,  the  vegetable  food  ration  for  chicks  equaled 
or  so'mewhat  surpassed  in  efficiency  the  corre- 
sponding ration  in  which  three-eighths  of  the 
protein  was  derived  from  animal  food." 

Hard-boiled  eggs  mixed  with  ground  grain,  and 
perhaps  a  little  milk,  make  a  most  excellent  food. 
This  is  frequently  fed  with  satisfactory  results  dur- 
ing the  first  few  days  of  the  chick's  existence. 
Infertile  eggs  which  are  taken  out  of  the  incubator 
whenever  the  eggs  are  tested,  if  properly  prepared, 
will  furnish  an  excellent  food  for  little  chickens. 
These  boiled  eggs  should  be  crumbled  or  chopped 
fine  and  may  be  fed  alone  or  mixed  with  softened 
ground  grain. 

Corn  may  form  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
ration  for  young  fowls  that  are  growing  rapidly. 
Granulated  oats  make  an  excellent  food  for  chick- 
ens after  they  are  several  days  old.  .  These  oats 
may  be  placed  in  receptacles  of  such  a  character 
that  the  food  may  be  readily  accessible  at  all 
times  and  yet  will  not  be  soiled  by  tramping. 

EXEKCISE 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  provide  a  run 
or  yard  for  young  chickens.  They  require  much 
exercise,  and  unless  provision  is  made  for  this, 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  most  satisfactory 
growth  and  development  will  be  made. 


214  Farm  Poultry 

The  young  of  all  animals  are  active  and  will 
take  constant  exercise  if  opportunity  is  given. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  the  young  of  fowls. 
They  are  not  only  inclined  to  range  freely  on 
their  own  account,  but  under  natural  conditions 
the  mother,  wandering  from  place  to  place  in 


Fig.  70.  Chicken  coop  — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

search  of  food,  compels  the  young  to  take  a 
greater  amount  of  daily  exercise  than  they  would 
if  left  wholly  to  themselves.  Perhaps  the  reader, 
if  he  is  a  farmer,  will  be  surprised  to  recall  how 
far  from  home  he  has  seen  the  old  hen  with  her 
brood  of  little  chicks. 

It  is  essential  also  that  they  be  kept  in  a  dry 


Car?  of  Little   Chickens  215 

place,  either  on  a  floor  or  a  dry  soil.  Young 
chickens  should  never  be  permitted  to  run  on 
moist  land,  particularly  if  it  is  allowed  to  become 
filthy.  Many  chickens  that  are  hardy  when  kept 
dry  prove  tender  when  compelled  to  occupy  quar- 
ters that  are  more  or  less  damp.  There  are  sev- 
eral breeds  of  poultry  that  cannot  endure  damp- 
ness, though  ^hardy  to  a  satisfactory  degree  when 
provided  with  warm  and  dry  quarters. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  attendant 
or  feeder  is  responsible  for  the  health  and  general 
condition  of  the  chickens,  quite  as  much  as  the 
food  which  they  consume.  Skilful  feeders,  by 
noting  carefully  the  wants  and  conditions  of  the 
chickens  as  regards  thrift,  are  able  to  determine 
how  best  to  feed  and  to  accomplish  satisfactory 
results  with  food  that  would  prove  entirely  un- 
satisfactory with  a  little  neglect  or  indifference 
on  the  part  of  the  feeder. 

FEEDING   TKOUGHS 

It  is  necessary  to  provide  feeding  troughs  for 
little  chickens  in  order  to  prevent  them  from 
tramping  on  the  food;  for  if  the  food  be  placed 
on  the  floor  of  the  brooder  or  poultry  house,  it 
soon  becomes  soiled  and  unfit  for  consumption. 
A  simple  and  efficient  feeding  trough  may  be 
made  by  tacking  a  strip  of  tin  about  3X  inches 


216  Farm  Poultry 

wide  along  the  edge  of  a  half -inch  board  so  that 
the  tin  projects  about  an  inch  and  a  half  on  either 
side  of  the  board.  Bend  the  tin  so  as  to  form  a 
shallow  trough  on  each  side  of  the  board,  then 
fasten  the  board  to  blocks  which  will  hold  it  edge- 


Fig.  71.    A  feeding  trough  for  little  chickens. 

wise  and  raise  it  from  one  to  two  inches  from  the 
floor.  (See  Fig.  71.)  The  trough  may  be  from  one 
to  three  feet  long.  It  is  within  easy  reach  of  the 
chickens  and  so  narrow  that  they  cannot  stand 
upon  the  edges.  Food  placed  in  such  feeding 
troughs  may  be  kept  clean  until  wholly  consumed. 

GKIT 

Grit  should  be  placed  before  chickens  not  later 
than  the  second  day  after  they  commence  to  eat. 
Coarse  sand  will  answer  the  purpose  very  well  for 
young  chickens.  Finely  crushed  stone  or  pulver- 
ized cinders  will  suffice  if  coarse  sand  or  prepared 
grit  is  not  at  hand.  As  nature  does  not  provide 
grit  in  the  digestive  organs  of  the  newly  hatched 
chicken,  it  is  necessary  to  furnish  this  grit  in  order 


Supply  of  Drinking  Water  217 

that  the  chick  may  grind  its  first  hard  food.  As 
nature  provides  nourishment  for  a  chicken  for  a 
day  or  two  after  it  is  hatched,  grit  is  not  absolutely 
needed  until  the  third  or  fourth  day,  provided  the 
first  food  is  quite  soft. 

DKINKING  FOUNTAINS 

One  of  the  difficult  problems  that  the  amateur 
poultryman  has  to  solve  is  how  best  to  keep  pure 
drinking  water  continually  before  the  little  chick- 


Fig.  72.    A  movable  coop,  showing  a  good  device. 

ens.  Small  chickens  drink  frequently,  and  as  their 
little  beaks  are  sometimes  more  or  less  loaded  with 
soft  food,  which  is  deposited  in  the  drinking  foun- 
tain whenever  the  beak  becomes  wet,  the  question 
of  how  to  keep  the  water  pure  is  not  an  easy  one 
to  solve.  As  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  drinking 


218  Farm  Poultry 

fountain  at  a  warm  temperature,  it  soon  becomes 
tainted  and,  unless  given  frequent  attention,  will 
emit  a  disagreeable  odor.  This  condition  must 
not  be  allowed  to  exist,  for  all  food  and  water 
consumed  by  the  fowls,  particularly  the  young, 
should  be  free  from  taint.  There  is  no  greater 
stumbling  block  to  the  novice  than  the  lack  of 
cleanliness. 

Many  automatic  fountains  will  keep  water  before 
the  chickens,  but  they  are  frequently  difficult  to 
cleanse  if  they  once  become  tainted.  Nothing 
less  than  frequent  scalding  with  steam  or  boiling 
water  will  answer  the  purpose.  Any  drinking  foun- 
tain that  is  constructed  of  glass,  that  will  not 
bear  such  temperatures,  is  objectionable.  Tin  or 
earthenware  is  preferred  on  account  of  the  ease 
of  cleansing.  A  drinking  fountain  made  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  one  with  a  revolving  reser- 
voir, described  in  a  previous  chapter  (page  120), 
will  prove  very  satisfactory.  An  empty  tomato 
can  and  a  shallow  saucer  will  answer  every  pur- 
pose. These  may  be  readily  cleansed  and  are 
convenient. 

BKOODEKS 

Brooders  require  constant  care  to  keep  them 
clean  and  to  see  that  no  part  becomes  wet,  which 
will  frequently  happen  if  water  dishes  are  placed 
within  the  machine.  Cleanliness  must  be  insisted 


The   Care  of  Brooders  219 

on.  The  temperature  at  which  the  brooder 
should  be  kept  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
age  of  the  chickens.  It  should  be  warm  enough 
so  that  the  chickens  will  not  huddle  together  to 
keep  warm,  and  of  course,  should  be  cool  enough 
for  the  greatest  comfort.  Bowel  disorders  are  fre- 
quently caused  by  exposure  and  improper  brooder 
temperatures.  The  person  who  makes  his  chick- 
ens the  most  comfortable  will  probably  succeed 
best  with  the  brooder. 

The  following  conclusions  in  regard  to  im- 
proper feeding  and  brooder  conditions  are  given 
by  the  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station:*  "Post-mortem  examination  showed  that 
the  diseases  may  be  classified  under  four  heads. 
Disorders  ascribable : 

"A.  To  heredity  or  to  environment  during  period 
of  incubation.  (Recent  experiments  have 
demonstrated  that  successive  alternate 
periods  of  heat  and  cold  during  incubation 
are  responsible  for  a  very  large  proportion 
of  abnormalities.)  Thirty-three  per  cent 
of  the  chicks  examined  showed  more  or  less 
trouble  under  this  head. 

"B.  To  mechanical  causes,  e.  g.,  overcrowding 
in  the  brooders,  resulting  in  death  by 
suffocation,  trampling,  etc. 

*  Bulletin  No.  61,  p.  53. 


220  Farm  Poultry 

"C.  To  imperfect  sanitation,  lack  of  ventilation, 
sunlight,  etc.;  e.  g.,  tuberculosis  flourishes 
in  dark,  poorly  ventilated  brooders.  Fif- 
teen and  one -tenth  per  cent  of  the  post- 
mortems showed  more  or  less  evidence  of 
tuberculosis. 

"D.  To  improperly  balanced  ration,  i.  e.,  im- 
proper feeding.  For  the  continued  main- 
tenance of  health  there  must  be  a  definite 
proportion  between  the  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates (starch,  sugar,  etc.),  fats  and  the 
nitrogen -containing  proteins.  A  ration 
wholly  vegetable  is  almost  certain  to  con- 
tain a  too  low  percentage  of  nitrogen, 
while  a  ration  exclusively  animal  is  very 
sure  to  be  deficient  in  carbohydrates.  As 
a  result  of  improper  food,  digestive  dis- 
orders soon  appear,  either  in  the  liver  and 
gall  bladder,  or  in  the  intestines.  Of  the 
chicks  examined,  75.7  per  cent  had  abnor- 
mal livers;  38.6  per  cent  had  various  forms 
of  intestinal  disorders." 

"In  conclusion,  special  attention  is  called  to  the 
following  facts,  confirmed  by  experiments:* 

"1.  Careful  external  and  internal  examination 
(such  as  any  one  can  readily  make)  of  the  dead 
chick  will  usually  disclose  the  cause  of  death.  The 
necessary  remedies  are  usually  not  difficult,  to  find. 

*Bulletin  No.  61,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  p.  59. 


Causes  of  Death  221 

"2.  Death  from  overcrowding,  suffocation  and 
trampling  can  be  readily  corrected.  It  is  more 
frequent  than  is  generally  suspected. 

"3.  For  guarding  against  tuberculosis,  give  the 
interior  of  the  brooders  all  the  sun  and  air  pos- 
sible on  pleasant  days. 

"4.  Trouble  of  the  liver  and  gall  bladder  are 
usually  easily  recognizable  from  the  green  stains. 
For  correcting  this,  feed  more  animal  food.  The 
use  of  the  proper  proportion  of  animal  food  will 
pay  a  handsome  profit  through  decreased  mortality 
and  increased  weight  of  the  chicks.  In  feeding 
bear  in  mind  that  chicks  in  a  state  of  nature 
spend  practically  all  their  waking  hours  in  search 
of  food,  and  that  they  do  not  fill  their  crops  in 
ten  minutes  every  two  hours.  Feeding  should  be, 
as  far  as  the  time  of  the  attendant  renders  profit- 
able, a  continuous  process,  but  by  no  means  a 
continuous  gorge. 

"5.  Diarrhoea,  etc.,  frequently  result  from  feed- 
ing a  too  large  proportion  of  animal  food,  and  are 
often  brought  on  by  cold,  exposure,  etc. 

"6.  If  the  yolk  is  present  in  considerable  quan- 
tity in  chicks  a  week  old,  or  if  more  than  1  or 
2  per  cent  of  deformed  chicks  appears,  look  to 
the  better  regulation  of  the  incubators  or  to  the 
health  of  the  breeding  pens." 


CHAPTER  XII 

CAPONS   AND  BROILERS 

THEKE  is  a  question  in  the  minds  of  many 
persons  whether  caponizing  is  really  as  profitable 
as  it  is  often  represented  to  be.  The  profits 
of  capon  rearing  that  are  frequently  given  in 
captivating  accounts  are  often  very  misleading. 
While  it  is  true  that  these  most  favorable  reports 
are  well  within  the  range  of  possibilities,  yet 
many  of  them  far  exceed  the  probable  returns  of 
earnest  and  well-directed  efforts  of  beginners. 
One  of  the  first  questions  which  should  be  de- 
cided as  regards  capon  rearing,  is  the  profit  which 
this  enterprise  will  probably  yield; — in  other 
words,  will  caponizing  pay?  Without  doubt  this 
question  should  be  answered  both  affirmatively 
and  negatively.  When  capon  rearing  is  compared 
with  some  of  the  most  productive  lines  of  poultry 
work  conducted  at  this  time  by  the  most  skilful 
operators,  it  probably  will  not  make  a  very  favor- 
able showing.  On  the  other  hand,  the  profits 
from  fine  capons  which  have  been  prepared  by 
the  expert  will  undoubtedly  compare  favorably 
with  results  obtained  in  other  directions.  If  the 

(222) 


Capons  and  Broilers  223 

prices  which  capons  bring  are  to  be  compared 
with  those  of  the  choicest  broilers,  one  would  be 
led  to  believe  that  broiler  raising  would  be  the 
more  profitable. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  it  is 
quite  possible  to  make  good  capons  of  fowls  that 
at  no  time  in  their  existence  would  have  sold  for 
the  highest  prices  as  broilers.  Broiler  raising,  like 
the  rearing  of  early  or  "hothouse"  lambs,  requires 
great  skill.  Those  who  do  not  understand  how 
to  secure  these  choice  products,  may  make  good 
capons  from  fowls  that  would  not  answer  the  re- 
quirements of  the  higher  priced  broilers. 

In  rearing  broilers,  it  is  impossible  to  bring  all 
the  birds  to  the  desired  condition — that  is,  all  will 
not  be  as  good  as  the  best.  The  poorer  birds  may 
be  retained  on  the  farm  and  prepared  for  the 
capon  market.  When  the  profits  which  choice 
capons  bring  are  compared  with  the  profits  of 
rearing  mature  fowls  that  are  sold  for  meat,  a 
most  excellent  showing  will  be  made.  The  ques- 
tion, then,  whether  capons  will  pay,  depends 
largely  on  the  point  of  view.  Sometimes  capons 
undoubtedly  can  be  made  to  pay  well,  and  the 
rearing  of  them  should  be  encouraged  under  cer- 
tain conditions. 

To  those  who  have  had  no  experience  in  the 
rearing  of  capons,  and  to  whom,  perhaps,  the 
word  is  almost  a  new  one,  it  may  be  stated  that 


224  Farm  Poultry 

they  are  castrated  males.  The  operation  is  per- 
formed in  order  that  the  fowls  may  grow  larger, 
become  more  gentle,  and  fatten  more  readily  than 
they  would  otherwise.  The  operation,  if  success- 
fully performed,  changes  the  nature  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  a  marked  degree.  The  change  brought 
about  by  this  operation  on  the  fowls  is  quite  as 
great  as  that  caused  by  a  similar  operation  upon 
other  classes  of  farm  stock,  if  not  even  greater 
than  that.  The  birds  lose  their  activity,  which 
is  a  potent  factor  in  easy  fattening.  They  grow 
considerably  larger  than  they  otherwise  would 
and  appear  much  more  gentle  and  consequently 
thrive  well  in  close  confinement. 

As  the  bodies  of  capons  are  large,  their  heads 
appear  somewhat  out  of  proportion, — that  is,  the 
comb  and  wattles  do  not  develop,  which  makes  the 
head  appear  small.  The  flesh  of  capons  is  espe- 
cially prized.  The  muscles  are  tender,  the  birds 
fatten  readily,  and  their  large  size  makes  them 
especially  desirable  for  certain  methods  of  cook- 
ing. The  largest  capons  sell  for  the  highest  price. 
In  order  to  reach  the  highest  profit,  capons  should 
be  large  and  fat  and  not  more  than  ten  or  eleven 
months  of  age.  If  they  are  kept  until  a  later 
age,  the  meat  becomes  somewhat  coarse  and  is 
not  so  desirable.  While  early  chickens  are  most 
highly  prized  for  broilers,  the  later  ones  may  be 
turned  to  a  good  account  for  the  capon  market. 


Caponizing 


225 


The  question  is  sometimes  asked,  with  all  se- 
riousness, whether  the  operation  is  not  sufficiently 
painful  to  condemn  the  practice.  Without  doubt 
considerable  pain  is  involved,  but  no  more  than  in 
a  similar  operation  which  is  performed  so  gener- 


Fig.  73.    Wigmore's  caponizing  set. 

ally  on  other  classes  of  farm  stock,  and  the  pain 
is  probably  less  than  in  those  cases. 

That  capons  are  regularly  quoted  in  markets 
of  many  cities  shows  that  there  is  sufficient  de- 
mand for  them  to  warrant  poultry  men  in  giving 
considerable  attention  to  their  production,  particu- 


226  Farm  Poultry 

larly  if  they  are  so  situated  that  fowls  which 
would  otherwise  bring  low  prices  can  be  turned 
to  this  use  to  a  good  advantage.  The  regular 
quotations  also  indicate  that  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  poultrymen  find  capon  rearing  a  fairly  prof- 
itable branch  of  the  poultry  business.  Were 
this  not  true,  poultrymen  would  cease  to  rear 
them  and  their  presence  in  the  markets  of  so 
many  cities  would  be  unknown. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  learn  how  to  perform  suc- 
cessfully the  operation  of  caponizing  fowls  of  the 
proper  age,  but  some  persons  are  naturally 
more  deft  in  finger  manipulation  than  others  and 
are  able  to  perform  delicate  operations  neatly  and 
rapidly.  In  districts  in  which  large  numbers  of 
capons  are  reared,  professionals  are  usually  en- 
gaged by  capon  rearers  to  perform  operations  on 
large  numbers  of  fowls  at  one  time.  They  go 
about  the  country  doing  the  work  more  satisfac- 
torily and  more  rapidly  than  the  owners  could  do 
it  for  themselves,  and,  as  they  have  become  so 
expert,  they  are  enabled  to  perform  the  operation 
for  a  very  small  sum  and  still  make  good  wages. 
From  two  to  four  cents  per  head  usually  pays 
for  a  skilful  operator.  Any  one  who  is  at  all 
deft  may  perform  the  work  by  merely  following 
the  directions  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  of 
caponizing  instruments.  Comparatively  few  farm- 
ers, however,  will  become  expert  if  they  operate 


Capons  and   Caponizing  227 

only  upon  their  own  fowls.  " While  the  novice 
might,  and  probably  would,  spend  a  half  hour 
upon  the  first  bird,  and  then  possibly  produce  a 
slip,  experts  will  do  scores  each  hour  during  the 
whole  day.  One  very  sure  and  rapid  worker 
caponized  one  bird  per  minute  for  three  hours 
in  succession,  his  day's  work  being  450,  of  which 
not  one  per  cent  died."* 

All  breeds  of  fowls  are  not  equally  well  suited 
to  the  production  of  capons.  The  Black  Lang- 
shans  are  generally  especially  recommended  for 
this  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  Indian  Games 
should  be  avoided.  Plymouth  Rocks  answer  the 
purpose  very  well.  Langshan  and  Plymouth 
Rock  crosses  are  especially  prized.  They  make 
large,  fine -looking  birds,  fatten  readily  and  are 
easily  operated  upon.  Brahmas,  of  course,  grow 
to  the  largest  size,  and  may  prove  to  be  most 
profitable  birds  for  this  purpose.  They  are  not, 
however,  so  good  for  the  beginner,  on  account 
of  the  somewhat  greater  difficulty  in  performing 
the  operation.  Commission  men  do  not  state  that 
there  is  much,  if  any,  difference  in  the  value  of 
capons  from  the  different  breeds  of  fowls;  that 
is,  it  is  not  recognized  that  some  breeds  produce 
capons  decidedly  superior  to  those  of  other  breeds. 
Large -sized  birds  that  are  fat  bring  the  highest 
prices. 

#« Pocket  Money  Poultry,"  Norys,  page  171, 


228  Farm  Poultry 

It  is  recommended  that  the  fowls  should  be 
operated  upon  when  they  have  attained  the  weight 
of  about  two  pounds.  Some  poultrymen  recom- 
mend that  the  operation  be  performed  a  little 
earlier  in  life,  while  others  are  very  successful 
in  operating  upon  birds  that  are  somewhat  older. 
Without  doubt  the  best  time  will  depend  some- 
what upon  the  condition  of  the  bird.  If  the 
fowls  are  growthy  and  thin,  a  somewhat  lighter 
weight  will  suffice  than  if  the  fowls  are  very 
plump.  In  a  general  way,  authorities  on  capon- 
izing  recommend  that  the  operation  be  performed 
when  the  fowls  are  from  1%  to  2%  pounds  in 
weight. 

Chickens  to  be  operated  upon  should  be  fasted 
from  twelve  to  twenty -four  hours,  and  in  some 
cases  even  forty- eight  hours  is  recommended. 
It  is  suggested  not  only  to  withhold  food,  but, 
during  a  considerable  period  of  the  fasting,  to 
withhold  water  as  well.  Fowls  are  fasted  in 
order  to  empty  the  digestive  organs  and  to  de- 
plete somewhat  the  quantity  of  blood,  and 
thereby  reduce  the  danger  of  rupturing  the 
blood-vessels  while  performing  the  operation. 
One  great  danger  is  in  the  liability  of  rupturing 
the  arteries  which  are  situated  very  near  the 
organs  that  are  to  be  removed.  When  it  is 
borne  in  mind  that  the  abdominal  cavity  is 
opened  and  that  the  intestines  are  pushed  asido 


Canonizing 


229 


in  order  to  perform  the  operation  successfully, 
it  will  readily  be  seen  how  essential  it  is  to  have 
the  bowels  as  nearly  empty  as  possible,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  to  deplete  the  quantity  of  blood 
in  the  blood-vessels  so  far  as  the  good  health  of 
the  fowl  will  permit.  One  objection  that  is  fre- 
quently made  to  caponizing  is,  that  good  light 
is  required,  particularly  if  the  operator  is  not  the 
most  skilled.  Clear  days  when  the  sun  shines 
brightly  are  preferred. 
It  frequently  happens 
that  fowls  may  be 
fasted  for  the  opera- 
tion and  cloudy 
weather  prevail.  This 
should  be  sufficient 

CaUSe     tO     prevent     the       FIS.  74.    Caponizing  table,  showing  cords 

novice  from  proceed-  and  weights  used  to  hold  ihe  fowls- 
ing  further  until  clear  weather  comes.  In  such 
an  event,  it  will  be  necessary,  to  keep  the  fowls 
on  very  light  rations  of  soft  food  until  the  prom- 
ise of  clear  weather  is  near  at  hand.  Experienced 
operators  are  not  hindered  so  much  by  improper 
light  as  are  the  inexperienced,  yet  all  deem  the 
brightest  light  desirable. 

The  head-reflector  used  by  physicians  in  per- 
forming delicate  operations  upon  the  throat,  is 
used  by  some  operators,  and  is  found  to  work 
successfully  with  artificial  light.  Expert  oper- 


230  Farm  Poultry 

ators  are  enabled  to  werk  with  the  reflector  with 
almost  as  much  ease  and  satisfaction  as  in  bright 
sunlight.  This  reflector  consists  of  a  mirror  fas- 
tened to  the  head  by  a  band  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  mirror  can  be  turned  to  any  desired 
angle  to  throw  the  light  into  the  cavity,  and 
to  show  the  location  of  the  organs  to  be  re- 
moved, as  well  as  the  place  of  the  near-by  veins 
and  arteries. 

"  When  to  make  capons  and  the  time  to  sell.— 
Judging  from  these  results  and  a  study  of  the 
markets  the  best  chance  to  profit  by  the  produc- 
tion of  capons  would  be  in  caponizing  late  chicks 
that  ordinarily  would  be  fit  for  market  as  broilers 
or  roasters  when  the  prices  are  the  lowest,  and 
too  old  to  sell  as  tender  chickens  in  January  and 
February.  Cockerels  that  were  hatched  in  June, 
July  or  August,  especially  if  of  the  large  early- 
maturing  kind  like  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyan- 
dottes  crossed  on  Brahmas  or  Langshans,  castrated 
in  September,  October  and  November,  and  mar- 
keted in  March,  April,  May  and  June,  when  they 
would  have  reached  their  best,  would  be  the  most 
profitable  and  bring  the  highest  price.  Such 
birds  are  often  sold  alive  by  the  pound  very  low 
in  the  city  markets  or  by  those  who  have  no  room 
to  winter  them.  Farmers  who  have  cheap  food, 
who  are  far  from  shipping  points,  and  therefore 
kill  and  ship  all  at  one  time  in  cold  weather, 


Marketing   Ccqwns  231 

might  profitably  make  capons  of  all  roosters. 
Those  who  keep  birds  until  maturity  for  their 
own  table  should  do  the  same.  There  will  be 
little  gained  by  caponizing  birds  in  May  or  June 
if  they  are  to  be  marketed  by  Christmas,  as  the 
birds  have  not  sufficient  time  to  fill  out."* 

Preparing  capons  for  market. —  "Capons,  like 
other  fowls,  should  be  fasted  twenty -four  hours 
before  killing,  that  the  crop  may  be  empty  and 
therefore  need  not  be  removed.  The  head,  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  a  capon,  has  a  particu- 
larly long  and  pointed  appearance  and  should 
always  be  left  on.  They  should  be  bled  by  cut- 
ting inside  the  mouth  or  throat.  The  neck  and 
saddle  feathers  are  unusually  large  and  fine  ;  these 
and  the  small  size  of  the  tail  distinguish  a  capon 
from  any  other  fowl;  therefore  they  are  left  on, 
as  well  as  the  feathers  on  the  leg  from  the  hock 
joint  half  way  up  the  thigh  and  those  on  the 
outer  joints  of  the  wings.  The  breast,  back,  the 
wings  next  to  the  body  and  the  upper  part  of 
the  thighs  are  picked  clean.  They  should  be 
dry-picked  without  tearing  the  skin,  and  the  head, 
mouth,  shanks  and  feet  washed  clean.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  remove  all  clotted  blood  from 
the  mouth.  Capons  for  the  New  York  markets 
should  be  sent  undrawn.  Some  Boston  dealers 
receive  them  undrawn.  They  should  be  packed 

*  Bulletin  No.  20,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


232  Farm  Poultry 

in  boxes  or  flour  barrels  washed  clean  and  lined 
with  white  wrapping  paper.  Neatness  and  at- 
tractive appearance  are  everything  where  quick 
sales  and  best  prices  are  to  be  secured."* 

BROILERS 

Broilers  are  young,  plump  and  fat  chickens 
which  have  been  forced  to  make  the  greatest  pos- 
sible weight  during  the  few  weeks  of  their  exist- 
ence. Broiler  rearing  may  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  specialties  of  the  poultry  business  and  one  that 
does  not  appeal  particularly  to  the  farmer  who 
keeps  his  fowls  under  what  may  be  called  good 
average  conditions.  If  a  farmer  who  keeps  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  hens  should  produce 
a  few  good  broilers,  the  extra  expense  and  trouble 
of  preparing  them  for  market  and  of  marketing 
them  would  make  serious  inroads  on  the  profits. 

Great  skill  is  required  to  bring  this  work  to  its 
highest  perfection;  consequently  those  who  are 
prepared  to  raise  a  considerable  number  of  fowls 
for  this  purpose  are  -more  likely  to  become  expert 
than  are  those  whose  chief  interests  lie  along  other 
lines  of  work.  On  this  account  the  production 
of  broilers  for  the  markets  of  the  large  cities  is 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  comparatively  few,  who 
may  be  called  specialists.  These  men  make 

*  Bulletin  No.  20,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Broilers  233 

broiler  rearing  a  business,  and  learn  how  to  per- 
form the  various  operations  in  the  best  mariner 
and  with  the  greatest  exactness. 

If  one  is  contemplating  the  production  of  broil- 
ers on  a  somewhat  extensive  scale,  he  should  not 
depend  upon  written  directions  for  his  guidance, 
but  should  make  a  thorough  inspection  of  the 
markets,  in  order  to  learn  what  kind  of  a  product 
the  market  demands.  He  should  also  visit  one  or 
more  broiler  farms,  where  these  birds  are  success- 
fully reared  in  large  numbers.  The  experience  of 
practical  men  is  the  safest  guide. 

As  broilers  are  often  placed  upon  the  market 
when  they  weigh  less  than  two  pounds  per  pair, 
the  skill  in  feeding  little  chickens  and  the  care  of 
the  brooder  become  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Light-weight  winter  broilers  may  be  regarded  as 
strictly  brooder  chickens.  The  light-weight  broil- 
ers, when  in  demand,  sell  for  the  highest  prices. 
Skill  is  of  more  relative  importance  in  the  produc- 
tion of  young  high-priced  meat  than  in  the  pro- 
duction of  mature  fowls  or  those  which  more  nearly 
approach  maturity. 

While  the  cost  of  food  is  of  less  relative  im- 
portance in  the  production  of  young  fowls  for  the 
market  than  in  the  production  of  older  ones,  yet  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  cost  of  food  per 
pound  of  gain  in  live  weight  increases  as  the 
period  from  birth  or  hatching  is  increased.  This 


234  Farm  Poultry 

cost  continues  to  increase  until  a  period  is  reached 
when  the  food  consumed  produces  no  gain,  that 
is,  until  the  fowls  cease  to  increase  in  size  and 
weight.  If  the  production  of  flesh  is  considered 
from  a  standpoint  of  food  alone,  the  young  fowls 
are  the  most  profitable.  When  the  cost  of  hatch- 
ing and  the  value  of  the  eggs  are  taken  into 
account,  the  youngest  product  may  not  be  the 
most  profitable  to  the  producer.  It  is  for  each 
breeder  to  determine  for  himself  at  what  age  he 
can  sell  with  the  greatest  profit.  Young  fowls  will 
undoubtedly  be  selected,  but,  as  a  few  weeks' 
growth  often  changes  considerably  the  value  per 
pound,  fine  discriminations  must  be  made  if  one  is 
to  become  expert. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked,  "Will  it  pay 
to  raise  broilers!"  It  will  undoubtedly  pay  the 
right  kind  of  people  to  enter  into  the  business  on 
a  somewhat  large  scale;  yet  no  one,  no  matter 
how  enthusiastic  he  maybe,  should  attempt  broiler 
rearing  on  a  large  scale  without  experience  and 
considerable  capital.  The  chief  essential  to  suc- 
cess is  a  good  knowledge  of  the  business.  If  this 
cannot  be  learned  from  the  experience  of  others, 
it  should  be  learned  from  personal  experience, 
beginning  in  a  small  way  at  first  and  advancing 
as  judgment  seems  to  warrant. 

Many  poultry  raisers  about  Hammonton,  New 
Jersey,  find  it  profitable  to  produce  broilers  for 


Broilers  235 

the  New  York  and  Philadelphia  markets  during 
a  portion  of  the  year.  Throughout  the  winter 
and  spring  this  work  pays  them  best.  In  the 
summer  other  lines  of  work  largely  occupy  their 
attention.  Broilers  are  reared  more  for  home 
consumption  on  the  farms  in  some  parts  of  the 
country  than  others.  The  South  depends  more 
on  these  young  fowls  than  the  North. 

Dry,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  are  specially  prized 
for  broiler  rearing.  Cleanliness  and  freedom  from 
moisture  are  requisites  to  success.  These  con- 
ditions are  more  easily  maintained  on  light,  por- 
ous soils  than  on  heavy  ones.  Keep  the  chickens 
dry  and  clean  and  give  them  plenty  of  wholesome, 
easily  digested  food.  Corn  meal,  wheat  bran, 
ground  oats  with  the  hulls  removed,  and  hard- 
boiled  eggs  may  make  the  bulk  of  the  ration. 
These  should  be  fed  after  thoroughly  soaking  or 
scalding.  Some  meat  food  and  some  green  food 
should  not  be  neglected.  Baked  foods  are  rec- 
ommended and  are  undoubtedly  safe.  For  further 
discussion  of  foods,  see  chapter  on  feeding  little 
chickens  (Chapter  XI).  Those  who  make  a 
study  of  the  foods  used  by  successful  poultry- 
raisers  soon  learn  that  there  is  no  best  food,  but 
many  foods  are  excellent  if  fed  with  judgment. 

Various  breeds  of  fowls  are  used  for  broilers, 
one  of  the  favorites  being  the  Wyandotte.  Many 
prefer  to  use  crosses,  on  account  of  the  vigor  and 


236  Farm  Poultry 

hardiness  of  the  chicks.  Heavy  breeds  are  usually 
crossed  on  the  smaller,  quick -maturing  ones. 
These  crosses  have  suitable  size  and  they  mature 
early. 

Broiler  -  rearing  and  egg  production  go  well 
together.  Experienced  broiler  raisers  who  have 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  business  are  able  to 
produce  eggs  that  will  give  better  and  more  even 
lots  of  chickens  than  those  that  are  purchased 
from  farmers  who,  perhaps,  keep  fowls  of  many 
different  breeds.  The  ultimate  success  will  de- 
pend largely  on  the  fertility  of  the  eggs  and  on 
the  kind  of  fowls  that  produced  them. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

DUCKS  AND   GEESE 

THE  American  farmer  too  often  thinks  of  "poul- 
try" as  comprising  only  "hens  and  chickens."  The 
term  really  covers  all  kinds  of  domesticated  birds 
including  those  grown  for  pets  or  for  mere  fancy. 
With  the  more  diversified  agriculture  of  the 
future,  other  species  than  hens  must  come  into 
greater  prominence. 

DUCKS  —  GENEKAL    DISCUSSION 

While  ducks  have  been  reared  on  farms  for  a 
great  many  years,  yet  a  large  proportion  of  the 
business  of  duck -rearing  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  specialists  who  conduct  it  on  an  extensive 
scale.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  duck 
products  of  farm  3,  where  only  small  flocks  are 
maintained,  is  consumed  at  home  and  does  not 
affect  the  general  market.  The  rearing  of  the 
so-called  "green  ducks"  for  market  has  provided 
a  profitable  occupation  for  many  extensive  duck 
raisers.  Comparatively  few  farmers  enter  into  the 
business  of  duck -raising  extensively.  Ducks  are 

(237) 


238  Farm  Poultry 

usually  kept  in  moderate -sized  flocks,  that  roam 
at  will  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  prem- 
ises. When  reared  under  these  conditions,  the 
ducks  frequently  prove  beneficial  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  various  insect  pests.  They  will  travel 
long  distances,  and  in  their  rambles  are  con- 
tinually on  the  lookout  for  food;  both  vegetable 
and  animal  life  are  greedily  consumed.  Ducks 
may  become,  under  certain  conditions,  quite  as 
destructive  to  farm  crops  as  chickens,  although 
if  streams  or  wet  fields  are  included  within  their 
range  a  considerable  portion  of  their  time  is 
given  to  hunting  food  in  these  places. 

Those  who  enter  into  duck -raising  extensively 
rear  the  fowls  almost  exclusively  for  meat.  The 
eggs  produced  by  extensive  duck  raisers  are  not 
put  on  the  market  as  food  to  any  great  extent,  in 
competition  with  eggs  that  are  produced  cheaper 
by  the  noted  egg  breeds  of  hens.  Ducks  can 
seldom  successfully  compete  with  hens  for  egg 
production. 

Many  farmers  prefer,  for  various  reasons,  to 
keep  ducks  rather  than  hens.  It  is  well  known 
that  ducks  are  comparatively  free  from  disease 
and  are  not  nearly  so  likely  to  be  troubled  with 
vermin  as  hens.  This  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance on  many  farms  where  the  fowls  are  not 
given  much  care  and  attention. 

Ducks  are    much   more   easily   confined  than 


IHick  Rearing  239 

hens.  A  fence  two  or  three  feet  high  should 
suffice  for  them  under  all  ordinary  conditions, 
particularly  for  those  breeds  which  are  the  most 
profitable  for  farm  use.  It  is  true  that  some  of 
the  less  profitable  breeds,  so  far  as  meat  pro- 
duction is  concerned,  are  able  to  use  their  wings 
to  good  advantage  and  are  quite  as  troublesome 
to  keep  within  inclosures  as  Mediterranean  fowls. 
Another  reason  why  farmers  frequently  prefer 
ducks  to  hens,  is  that  the  young  grow  much 
more  rapidly.  Those  who  make  a  practice  of 
fattening  young  ducks  for  the  market,  expect  to 
secure  birds  that  will  weigh  four  and  one  half 
or  five  pounds  at  nine  or  ten  weeks  of  age,  while 
good  chickens  would  weigh  only  about  half  as 
much. 

Ducks  are  adapted  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
country  where  chickens  thrive  well.  They  may 
be  reared  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions  as 
regards  climate  and  exposure.  Because  ducks, 
in  a  state  of  nature,  select  shallow  water  or 
marshy  land  as  their  feeding  ground  and  largely 
prefer  bodies  of  water  to  dry  land,  it  is  thought 
by  many  that  streams  or  ponds  are  necessary 
for  the  successful  rearing  of  domesticated  kinds. 
However,  many  of  the  most  successful  duck 
raisers,  who  produce  large  numbers  of  young 
birds  for  the  market,  do  not  depend  on  streams 
or  ponds  of  water  for  their  fowls.  It  is  true 


240  Farm  Poultry 

that  the  plumage  of  both  young  and  old  birds 
will  be  kept  in  a  somewhat  cleaner  condition  if 
the  ducks  have  access  to  ponds  or  streams,  but 
this  is  a  matter  of  minor  importance  in  the  rear- 
ing of  ducks  for  the  market.  Some  hold  that 


Fig.  75.    White  Pekin  drake,  young  (one-eighth  size). 

if  the  breeding  ducks  have  access  to  water,  a 
larger  proportion  of  fertile  eggs  is  secured. 
Other  breeders,  however,  are  able  to  conduct 
their  business  satisfactorily  without  such  water, 
and  consequently  it  may  be  said  that  the  value 
of  ponds  or  running  water  for  breeding  ducks 
may  be  somewhat  questionable. 


Kinds  of  Ducks  241 

DUCKS — BREEDS 

Nine  breeds  of  ducks  are  described  in  the 
American  Standard  of  Perfection;  viz.,  the  Pekin, 
Aylesbury,  Rouen,  Cayuga,  Muscovy,  East  In- 
dian, Call,  Crested,  and  Indian  Runner.  Of  these, 
the  first  four  may  be  mentioned  as  the  profitable 


Fig.  76.    White  Pekin  duck,  young  (one-ninth  size). 

breeds  for  farm  use.  While  the  Muscovy  ducks 
are  the  largest,  yet  they  are  not  the  most  profit- 
able for  farmers.  The  East  Indian  and  Call 
ducks  are  too  small  to  be  most  profitable.  They 
have  not  been  bred  for  eggs  or  meat  and  are 
considered  as  fancy  fowls.  They  occupy  a  similar 
position  among  ducks  to  that  which  bantams 
occupy  among  chickens. 

Pekin. — The  White  Pekins  undoubtedly  occupy 


242  Farm  Poultry 

a  foremost  position  as  to  popularity.  Without 
doubt  a  larger  number  of  White  Pekins  are  reared 
for  market  than  of  any  other  breed.  They  are 
pure  white,  large,  and  are  excellent  layers.  They 
are  considered  hardy  and  are  easily  reared.  They 
mature  early  and  are  especially  prized  for  the 
production  of  young  birds  for  market.  When 
walking  they  assume  a  more  upright  position  than 
do  the  ducks  of  most  other  breeds.  The  Pekins 
are  largely  reared  by  extensive  duck  raisers  who 
make  a  specialty  of  the  so-called  "green  ducks"; 
that  is,  young  birds  that  will  weigh  about  five 
pounds  apiece  when  not  more  than  ten  weeks 
old.  The  standard  weight  for  Pekins  is  eight 
pounds  for  the  drake  and  seven  for  the  duck. 

Aylesbury.— The  Aylesburys  probably  rank 
next  to  the  Pekins  in  popularity.  In  general 
appearance  they  closely  resemble  the  Pekins,  but 
may  be  distinguished  by  their  carriage.  The 
Aylesburys  are  a  pound  heavier  than  the  Pekins. 
They  have  the  power  of  adapting  themselves 
readily  to  the  various  conditions  under  which 
ducks  are  reared.  They  are  considered  even 
more  hardy  and  prolific  than  the  Pekins.  Some 
practical  duck  raisers  sometimes  introduce  an 
Aylesbury  cross  on  their  Pekin  stock  to  increase 
vigor  and  prolificacy.  For  market  purposes  the 
white  breeds  (Pekin  and  Aylesbury)  are  pre- 
ferred to  the  colored  ones,  because  white  young 


Kinds  of  Ducks  243 

birds  present  a  better  appearance  when  dressed 
than  do  those  of  colored  breeds. 

Rouen. — The  Eouens  are  especially  prized  as 
table  fowls..  As  producers  of  fine-grained,  deli- 
cate flesh,  these  fowls  are  not  surpassed  by  any  of 
the  so-called  useful  farm  breeds.  The  Eouens 
resemble  the  wild  Mallards  in  color,  the  resem- 


Fig.  77.    Rouen  drake  (one-eighth  size). 

blance  between  the  drakes  being  most  marked. 
The  Eouens  are  hardy,  prolific,  and  of  gentle  dis- 
position. Young  birds  may  be  kept  in  rather 
large  flocks  without  the  danger  of  stampeding 
that  is  so  troublesome  with  the  Pekins.  While 
the  standard  weight  for  the  Eouens  is  a  pound 
heavier  than  that  for  Pekins,  yet  it  is  thought 
that  they  do  not  grow  as  rapidly  as  the  latter. 
Extensive  duck  raisers  prefer  the  Pekins  or 


244  Farm  Poultry 

Aylesburys  on  account  of  their  quick  growth. 
However,  the  Rouens  are  most  excellent  farm 
fowls  and  are  highly  prized  on  account  of  their 
hardiness,  prolificacy,  and  gentle  disposition. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  the  Aylesburys. 

Black  Cayuga. — The  Black  Cayugas    are   rec- 
ognized as  a  distinctively  American  breed.     It  is 


Fig.  78.     Rouen  duck  (one-eighth  size). 

asserted  by  some  that  the  Cayugas  grow  as  rapidly 
and  mature  as  early  as  the  Pekins,  but  those 
who  are  extensively  engaged  in  rearing  ducks 
invariably  choose  one  of  the  white  breeds.  The 
Cayugas  are  profitable  farm  ducks.  They  thrive 
well  in  rather  close  confinement,  are  hardy,  gentle, 
and  do  not  care  to  wander  so  far  from  home 
as  some  other  breeds.  The  standard  weight  for 
these  is  the  same  as  for  the  Pekins. 


Breeds  and   Care  245 

Muscovy  ducks. — These  are  the  largest  of  any 
of  the  breeds  mentioned,  but  for  various  rea- 
sons are  not  such  profitable  farm  fowls  as  others. 
When  compared  with  the  Pekins  or  Rouen  s, 
the  Muscovies  are  not  as  good  layers.  They 
are  not  so  easily  confined.  Muscovy  ducks  are 
often  troublesome  in  the  poultry  yard  on  account 
of  their  disposition  to  attack  other  fowls,  both 
young  and  old. 

Call  ducks.— Call  ducks  are  bred  chiefly  for 
exhibition  purposes.  The  gray  Call  ducks  are 
sometimes  bred  for  decoys  and  are  used  by  sports- 
men to  lure  wild  ducks  within  shooting  distances. 
They  are  not  recommended  as  profitable  farm 
fowls. 

DUCKS — FOOD   AND    CAKE 

The  natural  food  of  the  duck  differs  in  some 
respects  from  that  of  the  hen.  While  ducks, 
like  hens,  eat  a  great  variety  of  food,  yet  because 
the  duck  is  not  possessed  of  a  distinct  crop  the 
food  is  passed  more  directly  to  the  digestive  or- 
gans and  does  not  undergo  so  complete  a  soften- 
ing process  as  that  consumed  by  the  hen.  It  is, 
therefore,  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  food 
be  consumed  in  a  soft  condition.  In  nature  the 
duck  gathers  a  large  proportion  of  its  food  from 
streams,  ponds,  or  marshy  places.  This  food 
consists  of  the  young  growing  shoots  and  roots 


246 


Farm  Poultry' 


of  water  plants,  snails  and  the  larvae  of  va- 
rious water  insects,  together  with  small  fish 
and  other  aquatic  life.  Those  who  have  made  a 
success  of  rearing  ducks  on  an  extended  scale 
have  learned  a  valuable  lesson  from  nature  and 
give  to  their  young,  growing  ducks  very  little  or 


Fig.  79.     View  on  Wm.  H.  Truslow's  duck  farm,  East  Stroudsburg,  Pa., 
showing  arrangement  of  yards  and  manner  of  supplying  water. 

no  hard  food.  While  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  ration  will  consist  of  grain,  it  is  ground  and 
moistened  with  water  or  milk  and  fed  in  a  soft 
condition. 

It  is  important  in  duck-rearing  to  secure  the 
greatest  degree  of  cleanliness,  although  this  is 
somewhat  more  difficult  than  with  hens.  Where 


Yards  and  Pens 


ducks  are  kept  in  confinement  in  comparatively 
small  pens  or  yards,  it  will  sometimes  be  found 
impossible  to  prevent  the  runs  from  becoming 
foul,  though  occasional  cultivation  will  aid  ma- 
terially in  keeping  the  yards  clean  and  in  pro- 


ng. 80.    Another  view  on  Mr.  Tmslow's  duck  farm,  showing  the  trad 
on  which  a  car  of  feed  is  pushed  from  pen  to  pen  at  feeding  time. 

viding  a  sanitary  home  for  the  occupants.  Poul- 
trymen  use  various  disinfectants  and  absorbents 
in  the  yards  in  order  to  keep  them  as  clean  as 
possible.  Yards  that  are  not  in  use  all  the 
year  should  be  planted  to  some  crop  if  an  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded.  Those  poultrymen  who  make 


248  Farm    Poultry 

a  specialty  of  producing  young  ducks  for  the 
market  make  a  practice  of  sowing  the  yards  and 
runs  to  some  quick -growing  crop  as  soon  as  the 
yards  are  vacant.  Rye  is  often  used  for  this 
purpose.  During  the  rearing  season,  gypsum, 
sawdust,  sifted  coal  ashes,  and  other  absorbents 
are  freely  used  in  those  parts  of  the  yards  that 
are  most  frequented  by  the  ducks. 

Young  ducks  should  be  fed  from  a  shallow 
trough,  which  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible. 
See  Fig.  81.  Pure  water  and  clean  yards  are 
prominent  essentials  in  successful  duck -rearing. 

It  is  true  that  ducks 
will  make  small  ponds 
and  stream  s  muddy 
and  more  or  less  filthy 

Fig.  81.    A  shallow  feeding  trough. 

when  they  have  access 

to  them,  yet  those  that  are  confined  in  yards 
without  a  running  stream  should  be  supplied  with 
pure  drinking  water. 

If  the  young  ducks  do  not  have  opportunity 
to  obtain  for  themselves  green  and  animal  food, 
it  should  be  supplied  to  them.  Specialists  fre- 
quently feed  young,  rapidly-growing  ducks  a 
ration  that  consists  of  10  or  20  per  cent  animal 
meal.  Eations  which  contain  considerable  ani- 
mal meal  have  proved  superior  to  a  purely  vege- 
table diet.  "Rations  containing  animal  food 
proved  very  much  superior  for  ducklings  to  ra- 


Foods  and  Feeding 


249 


tions  of  vegetable  origin  which  had,  according 
to  the  ordinary  methods  of  estimation,  practi- 
cally the  same  nutritive  value.  A  ration  of  vege- 
table food  supplemented  by  bone  ash  proved  much 
inferior  to  another  ration  of 
similar  ' composition,'  in  which 
three -eighths  of  the  protein  came 
from  animal  food."  * 


Fig.  82.    A  V-shaped  water  trough. 


Fig.  83.    A  shallow  water  trough. 


If  the  ducklings  are  confined  in  comparatively 
small  yards,  it  is  best  to  provide  some  shade 
for  them,  particularly  during  the  hottest  months. 
Green  food  fed  to  ducks  confined  in  yards  should 
be  cut  fine  in  a  feed-cutter.  Almost  any  green 
succulent  food  will  be  readily  eaten.  Rye,  clover, 
alfalfa,  Canada  field  peas,  and  corn  make  excel- 
lent food  if  finely  cut.  Ducks  will  readily  eat 
the  plant,  stalk  and  all,  in  this  condition,  while 

*  Summary  of  Bulletin  No.  171,  New  York  Experiment  Station. 


250  Farm  Poultry 

chickens  will  select  the  leaves  and  other  tender 
parts  and  reject  the  more  woody  portions  of  the 
stalks.  The  green  material  may  be  fed  alone 
or  mixed  with  the  moistened  ground  food.  The 
latter  may  consist  of  wheat  bran,  corn  meal  and 
ground  oats,  the  hulls  of  the  oats  having  been 
removed.  Various  kinds  of  ground  grains  may 
be  employed,  although  those  mentioned  are  used 
most  by  experienced  men. 

Ducklings  of  some  breeds  appear  to  be  quite 
fearless  in  some  respects,  yet  under  other  condi- 
tions they  are  easily  frightened,  and,  if  a  consid- 
erable number  are  kept  in  one  yard  or  pen,  the 
injury  done  by  "stampeding"  is  sometimes  con- 
siderable. Pekin  ducklings  are  particularly  liable 
to  injury  from  this  cause.  Some  extensive  duck 
raisers  make  a  practice  of  lighting  artificially 
that  part  of  the  yard  occupied  by  the  fowls  dur- 
ing the  night  as  a  partial  safeguard  against 
this  trouble. 

GEESE— GENEKAL  DISCUSSION 

The  rearing  of  geese  is  not  so  extensive  a 
business  as  that  of  raising  ducks.  The  condi- 
tions requisite  for  the  successful  raising  of  geese 
are  very  different  from  those  for  ducks.  The 
rearing  of  geese  is  not  in  the  hands  of  a  com- 
paratively few  extensive  raisers.  Geese  are  still 


Rearing   Geese  251 

raised  on  many  farms  in  comparatively  small 
flocks.  The  fact  that  geese  require  very  much 
more  room  than  ducks  has  probably  been  an 
important  factor  in  keeping  the  business  of  rear- 
ing them  in  the  hands  of  farmers  who  go  into 
the  enterprise  in  a  moderate  way.  While  ducks 
are  frequently  reared  successfully  without  water, 
except  as  it  may  be  necessary  for  drinking,  yet 
geese  thrive  best  where  ponds  or  streams  are  pro- 
vided. While  ducks  may  thrive  under  practically 
the  same  conditions  as  geese,  yet  the  conditions 
under  which  geese  do  best  are  not  necessary  for 
successful  duck  -  raising.  Fields  which  are  not 
suitable  for  cultivation  on  account  of  springs  or 
streams  make  good  pastures  for  geese.  A  com- 
paratively low  springy  or  marshy  land  may  be 
used  to  good  advantage  if  some  part  of  the  run 
is  comparatively  high  and  dry.  Geese  do  not 
thrive  so  well  in  large  flocks  as  ducks  do.  There 
seems  to  be  a  somewhat  general  law  which  may 
be  applied  to  all  farm  stock  as  regards  the  size  of 
flocks  or  herds.  The  smaller  animals,  as  a  rule, 
thrive  much  better  in  large  flocks  than  do  the 
larger  breeds  or  varieties.  It  is  true  that  large 
herds  of  cattle  are  maintained  on  some  of  the 
great  cattle  ranches  in  the  prairie  countries,  fcut^ 
an  almost  unlimited  range  is  given  them. 

Geese  do  not  require  a  great  deal  of  attention. 
After  the  young  are  a  week  or  so  old,  they  are 


252  Farm  Poultry 

able  to  care  for  themselves  largely,  if  a  good 
range  is  given.  The  food  of  geese  is  largely 
grass,  although  insects  and  other  low  forms  of 
animal  life  are  eaten  readily  and  are  essential. 

GEESE— BREEDS 

The  most  common  breeds  of  the  pure -bred 
geese  are  the  Toulouse,  African,  Embden,  Chinese, 
Canada  or  Wild,  and  Egyptian.  Many  geese 
throughout  the  country  are  of  no  particular 
breed.  It  is  probable  that  these  geese  have 
descended  from  those  imported  by  settlers  at 
an  early  date  in  the  history  of  the  country.  In 
some  instances  improved  breeds  have  been 
crossed  on  these  common  or  mongrel  geese,  but 
many  flocks  are  still .  maintained  that  are  of  no 
particular  breed,  neither  color  nor  conformation 
indicating  that  they  contain  any  considerable 
proportion  of  blood  of  improved  kinds. 

Toulouse.  —  The  Toulouse  geese  are  large, 
massive,  and  probably  attain  a  greater  weight 
than  those  of  any  other  breed.  I.  K.  Felch 
states*  that  geese  of  sixty  pounds  weight  per 
pair  have  been  exhibited  in  American  exhi- 
bitions. 

"Toulouse  geese  usually  lay  more  eggs  in  a 
season  than  Embden  or  African  geese,  but  not  as 

*« Poultry  Culture,"  p.  404. 


Breeds  of  Geese 


253 


many  as  the  best  China  geese.  They  are  nearer 
non- sitting  than  any  other  variety,  but  some  in- 
dividuals make  good  mothers.  The  goslings  are 
greenish  yellow  in  color,  generally  hardy  and  vig- 
orous. They  are  quiet  and  peaceable,  and  more 
easily  confined  by  stone  fences  than  other  breeds, 


Fig.  84.    A  pair  of  gray  Toulouse  geese.— From  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64.— Howard.  \ 

and  would  be  more  likely  to  be  contented  in  close 
quarters.  Toulouse  geese  are  gray  in  color,  with 
a  square,  massive  body,  carried  fairly  horizontal, 
the  abdominal  pouch,  or  loose  folds  of  skin  be- 
tween and  behind  the  legs,  almost  or  quite 
touching  the  ground."* 

It  is   often  difficult   to   distinguish   the   sexes, 

*  Report,  1897,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


254  Farm  Poultry 

as  the  gander  and  goose  have  exactly  the  same 
color  and  the  same  feathering.  The  standard 
weight  given  by  the  American  Standard  of  Per- 
fection is  twenty  pounds  for  the  adult  male  and 
eighteen  pounds  for  the  adult  female. 

Embden. — The  Embdens  very  much   resemble 
the  Toulouse  in  general  form ;  they  are,  however, 


Fig.  85.     Gray  wild  goose.—  From  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
•Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64.—  Howard. 

pure  white  throughout,  which  enables  one  readily 
to  distinguish  one  breed  from  the  other.  The 
Embdens  do  not  have  the  great  abdominal  pouch 
of  the  Toulouse,  although  it  is  sometimes  dis- 
tinctly developed.  "These  geese  are  inclined  to 
lay  a  little  earlier  than  the  Toulouse,  and  their 
eggs  average  a  trifle  heavier,  but  they  do  not 
lay  quite  as  many  eggs,  and  are  much  more  per- 


Breeds  of  Geese 


255 


sistent  sitters.  They  make  excellent  mothers.  The 
goslings  when  hatched  are  of  a  rich  yellow  color, 
which  changes  to  white  as  the  quill  feathers  grow. 
They  are  generally  hardy  and  grow  rapidly."  * 

African. — "Gray  African  geese  are  by  many 
raisers  considered  the  most  profitable  of  all 
geese  to  keep.  They  grow  the  heaviest  in  the 


Fig.  86.    A  pair  of  gray  African  geese.— From  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64.— Howard. 

shortest  space  of  time,  and  are  ready  for  market 
in  ten  weeks,  weighing  at  that  age  between  eight 
and  ten  pounds.  They  are  very  much  like  the 
Pekin  duck  in  this  respect,  and  as  compared 
with  other  geese  give  the  most  satisfactory  re- 
turns for  the  least  labor  and  time  spent  in 
growing  them."  t 

*  Report,  1897,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
t  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


256  Farm  Poultry 

The  African  geese  are  called  good  layers,  and 
are  especially  prized  as  table  fowls.  The  flesh 
is  good  flavored  and  not  so  coarse  fibered  as  the 
Toulouse.  The  young  are  hardy  and  grow  rap- 
idly. The  voice  and  notes  of  the  African  goose 
resemble  those  of  the  China  goose  quite  as  much 
as  those  of  the  Toulouse  or  Embden. 


Fig.  87.    Wild  and  African  cross.— From  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64.— Howard. 

Chinese. — Individuals  of  this  breed  are  several 
pounds  smaller  than  those  of  the  breeds  previ- 
ously described.  They  are  highly  prized  for 
the  quality  of  their  flesh  and  are  recognized  as 
excellent  layers.  Their  lack  of  size,  however, 
has  made  them  unpopular  except  for  exhibition 
purposes. 


Food  —  Natural  and  Artificial 


257 


GEESE  — FOOD  AND  CARE 

The  first  food  for  young  goslings  in  nature  is 
grass,  and  breeders  prefer  to  provide  this  for  the 
young  of  the  domesticated  geese.  Grass  at  pas- 
ture is  recommended.  Moistened  corn  meal  is 
also  recommended.  Grit  in  the  form  of  sand 
or  fine  gravel  should  be  provided.  Cooked  vege- 
tables make  an  excellent  food  and  may  be  fed 
in  the  form  of  a  mash.  Bran,  middlings,  and 
corn  meal,  mixed  with  cooked  vegetables,  are 
highly  recommended.  As  with  ducks  and  chick- 
ens, it  has  been  found  best  to  give  some  animal 
food.  Animal  meal  mixed  with  the  moistened 
corn  meal  is  recommended  for  young  geese  by 
many  breeders.  The  food  of  breeding  geese 
should  consist  chiefly  of  natural  food  gathered 
from  the  pasture.  Insects,  snails,  and  other 
animal  life  are  then  consumed.  If  animal  food 
is  not  abundant,  it  may  be  supplied  artificially 
to  good  advantage  in  the  form  of  animal  meal. 
It  is  essential  to  permit  breeding  geese  to  roam 
at  will  over  areas  of  considerable  size.  For 
fattening  geese,  it  is  a  general  practice  to  con- 
fine them  somewhat  closely  in  order  to  prevent 
them  from  taking  too  much  exercise.  Europeans, 
who  have  become  so  noted  for  fattening  geese, 
take  great  .pains  to  keep  them  quiet.  Every 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid  any  dis- 

Q 


258  Farm  Poultry 

turbance  of  the  flock.  Corn  meal  may  form 
the  larger  portion  of  the  daily  ration  for  fatten- 
ing geese.  Meat  scrap  may  enter  into  the  ration 
up  to  one -fifth  of  the  total  amount,  for  immature 
fowls. 

Pate  de  foie  gras.—In.  districts  where  the  pro- 
duction of  "pate  de  foie  gras"  has  developed 
into  an  industry,  particularly  about  Strasburg, 
Germany,  the  geese  are  confined  in  individual 
stalls  so  closely  that  they  are  compelled  to  re- 
main in  a  sitting  or  standing  posture.  The  stalls 
are  narrow,  so  that  the  birds  are  not  even  per- 
mitted to  turn  around.  They  are  removed  from 
this  stall  twice  each  day  and  fed,  by  the  cram- 
ming process,  whole  Indian  corn  that  has  been 
thoroughly  soaked.  The  corn  is  forced  into  the 
mouth  by  hand  and  pushed  into  the  throat  by 
the  finger  and  is  worked  down  the  neck  by  rub- 
bing externally.  The  geese  are  given  plenty  of 
pure  water  and  grit  in  the  form  of  fine  gravel. 
The  close  confinement  and  abundance  of  corn 
cause  the  livers  to  grow  abnormally  large,  some- 
times weighing  as  much  as  three  pounds  each. 

It  is  said  that  expert  feeders  will  produce 
large  livers  in  over  80  per  cent  of  the  geese  fed. 
The  livers  when  prepared  are  known  commer- 
gially  as  "pate  de  foie  gras,"  and  are  esteemed 
a  great  delicacy.  The  feeders  who  sell  livers  to 
those  who  prepare  them  for  the  trade  sometimes 


: 


Buildings  259 

receive  as  much  as  $1.50  per  pound.  In  some 
districts,  it  is  reported  that  great  stress  is  laid 
on  the  grit  which  is  furnished  these  fattening 
geese.  Small  pieces  of  antimony  ore  are  said  to 
be  highly  prized  for  this  purpose.  In  some  places 
the  geese  are  suspended  in  nets,  which  prevent 
them  from  taking  exercise. 

Houses. — Geese  require  inexpensive  and  small 
houses.  Comparatively  rude  and  simple  struc- 
tures answer  every  purpose.  Simple  shelter  from 
the  storm  is  all  that  is  necessary  during  the 
larger  part  of  the  year.  While  they  require 
larger  houses  than  ducks,  and  do  not  stand 
crowding  to  so  great  an  extent,  yet  the  buildings 
need  not  be  expensive.  Geese  will  require  about 
the  same  space  in  the  building  per  pound  of 
live  weight  as  ducks,  but  being  much  larger, 
require  larger  buildings  for  the  same  number  of 
fowls. 

Laying  qualities. — Geese  are  long-lived.  It  is 
stated  on  good  authority  that  they  frequently 
live  from  thirty  to  fifty  years,  and  individuals 
have  lived  to  be  more  than  a  hundred  years 
old.  The  females  retain  their  breeding  qualities 
through  life,  yet  it  is  recommended  to  keep  only 
young  ganders.  Those  from  three  to  five  years 
of  age  are  preferred.  Geese  are  good  sitters  and 
make  good  mothers.  In  this  respect  they  still 
retain  well  their  natural  instincts.  Under  ordi- 


260  Farm   Poultry 

nary  conditions,  a  goose  will  lay  from  twelve  to 
twenty  eggs  before  incubation.  If  the  eggs  be 
removed  from  the  nest,  two  or  three  sittings  of 
eggs  may  be  produced  by  one  female  before  in- 
cubation will  be  persisted  in.  Usually  it  is  rec- 
ommended not  to  attempt  to  secure  more  than 
three  sittings  from  one  female  before  she  is  per- 
mitted to  incubate.  In  practice,  the  first  eggs 
are  usually  set  under  hens,  the  goose  hatching- 
the  eggs  that  are  laid  last. 

Geese  frequently  begin  laying  early  in  the 
spring,  sometimes  as  early  as  February.  Many 
instances  have  been  noted  where  the  laying  com- 
menced in  the  late  fall  or  early  winter,  but  would 
not  continue  through  the  winter.  In  such  in- 
stances the  laying  would  begin  again  in  the 
spring. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  stated  by  various 
authors  to  be  from  twenty -eight  to  thirty -one 
days,  which  without  doubt  will  represent  the  limits 
under  ordinary  conditions.  When  eggs  are  placed 
under  hens  they  are  not  covered  quite  so  well  as 
when  placed  under  the  mother  goose,  and  incuba- 
tion therefore  may  be  delayed  a  little. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

TURKEYS,   GUINEAS,  PEAFOWLS,  PIGEONS 

OF  the  species  of  poultry  aside  from  the  hen, 
ducks  and  geese,  none  has  risen  to  great  popu- 
larity in  North  America  except  the  turkey.  The 
various  kinds  of  pheasants  and  peafowls  are 
grown  more  for  fancy  than  for  profit.  At  all 
events,  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  impor- 
tant farm  fowls. 

TURKEYS 

The  wild  turkey  is  a  native  of  North  America 
and  still  abounds  in  the  natural  forests  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia  and  other  Atlantic  states.  It 
is  also  found  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  and  is 
abundant  in  some  of  the  western  states,  but  its 
principal  home  in  the  eastern  United  States  at 
the  present  time  is  in  the  mountainous  regions  of 
the  Atlantic  states.  Like  many  other  species  of 
game  it  is  rapidly  disappearing,  due  to  the  great 
changes  made  by  man  in  his  onward  march 
of  civilization.  Man  is  a  great  disturbing  force 
of  nature's  equilibrium  when  he  removes  the  for- 
ests in  order  to  prepare  the  land  for  cultiva- 

(261) 


262  Farm  Poultry 

tion.  He  not  only  destroys  the  home  of  the 
game  by  removing  the  woods  but  causes  frequent 
forest  fires,  which  are  destructive  at  the  brood- 
ing season.  Probably  the  number  of  Wild  turkeys 
is  diminishing,  yet,  owing  to  their  shy  nature, 
they  are  not  likely  to  become  entirely  extinct  for 
many  years. 

The  wild  turkeys  that  are  now  found  in  the 
forests  of  North  America  are  those  which  have 
been  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  unfavorable 
conditions  to  which  they  have  been  subjected  and 
which  have  escaped  their  natural  enemies.  In 
other  words,  they  furnish  a  most  excellent  illus- 
tration of  the  "survival  of  the  fittest."  Persons 
who  have  had  experience  in  breeding  wild  tur- 
keys in  confinement  are  convinced  that  they  will 
do  well  and  retain  good  breeding  qualities  on  less 
food  than  will  be  required  to  keep  domesticated 
turkeys  in  the  same  condition. 

Wild  turkeys  appear  to  be  somewhat  taller  in 
proportion  to  their  weight  than  domesticated  ones. 
"They  thrive  and  keep  in  good  condition  on  less 
food  than  the  domestic  turkey.  Their  slender, 
alert  appearance  is  striking  to  the  most  careless 
observer.  Their  breadth  of  shoulder,  deep  chest 
and  firm  step  are  noticeable  when  they  are  com- 
pared with  the  domestic  turkey.  The  head  is 
small  in  proportion  to  the  body,  and  has  a  clean, 
game -like  appearance.  The  eyes  are  large,  bright 


Wild  Turkeys  263 

hazel,  and  full  of  intelligence  and  suspicion  .  .  . 
Gobblers,  when  full  grown,  are  about  four  feet 
high  and  weigh,  according  to  the  section  of  the 
country  they  are  taken  in,  from  15  to  20  pounds 
each.  They  do  not  get  their  full  growth  until  the 
end  of  the  third  year,  and  increase  in  weight  and 
beauty  for  several  years  after  that.  Gobblers 
weighing  36  and  40  pounds  have  often  been  shot. 
.  .  .  Wild  gobblers  mate  later  and  the  hens  lay 
later  than  domestic  turkeys.  The  flesh  of  wild 
birds  is  of  excellent  flavor  and  is  more  delicate 
and  juicy  than  that  of  domestic  turkeys."  * 

The  Ehode  Island  Experiment  Station  speaks 
as  follows  of  wild  turkey  crosses :f  "Where 
wild  turkeys  are  plenty,  crosses  between  wild  and 
domestic  birds  frequently  occur  without  design  on 
the  part  of  the  owner  of  the  latter.  Scores  of 
cases  are  recorded  where  a  wild  gobbler  from  the 
woods  has  taken  possession  of  a  flock  of  common 
turkeys,  sometimes  after  first  battling  with  and 
killing  the  domestic  gobbler.  The  results  of  such 
a  cross  in  almost  every  ca^e  have  been  so  satis- 
factory that  such  matings  are  much  desired  by 
turkey  raisers  in  those  sections,  and  young  wild 
birds  are  caught  for  this  purpose  and  brought  up 
with  common  young  turkeys.  Very  often  nests 
of  wild  turkey  eggs  are  found  in  the  woods  and 

*  Bulletin  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  p.  116. 
tSarae,  p.  119. 


264  Farm   Poultry 

hatched  on  the  farm.  These  domesticated  wild 
birds  usually  persist  in  roosting  separate  from  the 
others,  generally  in  the  woods  or  on  the  top  of 
a  house  or  barn.  When  raised  from  the  egg  they 
become  more  gentle  and  fearless  than  the  domestic 
turkey,  but  if  chased  or  frightened  they  recover 
their  wild  habits  very  quickly.  Wild  turkey 
crosses  are  hardier  and  healthier  than  common 
turkeys  and  rarely  have  disease.  Half-blood  hens 
are  generally  too  wild,  but  half-blood  gobblers 
are  not  as  wild  and  are  suitable  for  crossing  with 
domestic  hens.  A  small  proportion  of  wild  blood 
improves  the  size,  form,  and1  general  appearance, 
as  well  as  the  vigor,  without  being  a  disadvantage 
in  any  way.  A  quarter- wild  cross  is  better  for 
practical  breeding  than  a  pure  wild  or  half  wild 
bird.  Half -wild  crosses  do  well  if  allowed  a  large 
range,  but  are  not  well  suited  to  woody  lands  or  as 
easily  kept  on  small  places  as  the  domestic  turkey. 

"Wild  turkey  hens  under  domestication  and 
wild  first- cross  hens  often  disappear  in  the  spring 
and  are  not  seen  until  fall,  when  they  usually 
return  to  their  own  home  with  a  brood  of  nearly 
full-grown  turkeys.  Half-blood  mothers  make 
their  young  too  wild.  Half-bloods  reared  by 
domestic  turkey  hens  are  not  much  inclined  to 
stray.  Quarter -bloods  under  certain  conditions 
may  be  as  wild  as  the  wild  bird  of  the  woods. 

"The  flock  of  half -wild  birds  reared  at  the  Sta- 


Wild   Turkey    Crosses  265 

tion  this  season  was  very  tame  and  unsuspicious 
until  several  were  snared  for  exhibition  at  the 
Kingston  Fair.  Since  then  they  have  been  so  shy 
that  we  were  unable  to  secure  another  lot.  They 
take  flight  immediately  if  a  suspicious  movement 
is  made.  They  will  be  more  easily  caught  later 
in  the  season.  The  wild  blood  gives  the  cross  an 
astonishing  ability  to  care  for  themselves.  It  is 
apt  to  have  the  strongest  influence  in  breeding. 
If  first  crosses  are  bred  together  the  stock  resem- 
bles the  pure  wild,  and  after  several  generations 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  pure  wild  by 
good  judges.  The  older  the  bird  grows  the  more 
he  shows  the  wild  blood.  Crosses  have  much  of 
the  superior  game  flavor  of  the  wild  and  com- 
mand a  higher  price  for  the  table. 

"Some  wild  bronze  crosses  that  are  half  and 
three-quarters  wild  blood  are  as  large  as  the  pure 
bronze  turkeys.  Several  years'  crossing,  however, 
with  the  selection  of  the  largest  for  breeding  each 
season,  gives  the  greatest  size."* 

Domesticated  turkeys  partake  largely  of  the 
nature  of  the  wild  stock  from  which  they  have 
descended.  Many  of  the  domesticated  flocks 
have  been  crossed  on  the  domesticated  fowl  within 
recent  years. 

Turkeys  that  are  commonly  reared  for  profit 
on  farms  are  of  a  roving  disposition  and  do  not 

*  Bulletin  No.  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


266  Farm  Poultry 

thrive  well  when  closely  confined.  On  this 
account,  they  are  not  suited  to  rearing  in  large 
numbers  on  small  areas.  Owners  of  small  farms 
or  village  lots,  therefore,  are  practically  debarred 
from  rearing  large  numbers  of  turkeys,  particu- 
larly if  they  are  to  be  kept  from  trespassing 
on  the  holdings  of  their  neighbors.  While  the 
mother  turkey  with  her  brood  may  be  confined  in 
very  limited  areas  for  a  time  during  the  brooding 
season,  yet  as  the  young  become  older  and  are 
prepared  to  seek  their  own  living,  they  thrive 
much  better  if  close  restrictions  are  not  enforced. 
Whoever  attempts  to  rear  turkeys  in  consider- 
able numbers  should  therefore  plan  to  give  them 
a  wide  range,  particularly  during  the  latter  part 
of  their  growth.  They  are  not  able  to  adapt 
themselves  to  artificial  conditions  as  well  as  chick- 
ens or  ducks  or  even  geese. 

In  North  America  there  are  two  distinct  species 
of  native  turkeys;  one  inhabits  the  United  States 
and  Mexico,  the  other  is  found  in  Honduras.  The 
latter  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  ocellated 
turkey.  The  former  has  been  separated  into  sev- 
eral varieties,  the  best  known  of  which  are  the 
Mexican  turkey,  from  which  the  common  domes- 
ticated turkey  is  descended,  and  the  wild  turkey 
of  the  eastern  United  States.  The  Mexican  form 
is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  wild  form  of  the 
eastern  United  States. 


Description  of  Varieties 
TUKKEYS— VABIETIES 


267 


The  recognized  varieties  of  the  domestic  turkey 
are  the  Bronze,  Narragansett,  White  Holland,  Buff, 
Slate,  and  Black. 

The  Bronze. — The  Bronze  is  the  largest  variety. 
The  American  Standard  of  Perfection  gives  the 


Fig.  88.     Bronze  turkey,  male. 

standard  weights  for  this  turkey,  adult  male  36 
pounds,  adult  female  20  pounds.  The  origin  of 
the  variety  is  obscure.  Some  authorities  main- 
tain that  it  was  formed  by  crossing  the  North 
American  wild  on  the  domesticated  Black.  The 
wandering  disposition  of  the  Bronze  is  thought 


268  Farm   Poultry 

to  be  due  to  a  comparatively  recent  infusion  of 
wild  blood.  This  is  unquestionably  the  most 
.popular  variety,  owing  largely,  no  doubt,  to  its 
great  size.  Breeders  and  judges  of  turkeys  lay 
great  stress  on  the  size  of  the  Bronze.  Correct 
plumage  is  not  sufficient  to  redeem  an  exhibition 
bird  if  it  lacks  in  size.  (Fig.  88.) 

Narragansett.  —  This  variety  takes  its  name 
from  Narragansett  Bay  in  Ehode  Island.  This 
state  has  long  been  noted  for  the  large  numbers 
and  excellence  of  the  turkeys  which  it  has  pro- 
duced. The  reputation  of  the  Rhode  Island  tur- 
keys was  made  largely  when  the  Narragansetts 
were  chiefly  reared.  In  more  recent  years  the 
Bronze  has  supplanted  the  Narragansetts  to  a 
considerable  extent,  which  was  due  to  the  greater 
size  of  the  former,  although  the  latter  are  not 
small  turkeys.  The  Standard  gives  the  weight 
for  Narragansetts  as  30  pounds  for  the  cock  and 
18  for  the  hen.  They  are  of  a  gray  color,  al- 
though some  bronze  luster  is  seen  on  the  wings. 
They  have  plump,  thick -set  bodies  and  grow 
rapidly.  They  mature  early  and  do  not  roam  so 
far  as  the  Bronze. 

The  White  Holland. — This  variety  is  some- 
times known  as  the  White  Turkey.  It  is  not  so 
popular  as  some  other  kinds,  yet  in  a  few  local- 
ities it  is  a  favorite.  Many  breeders  who  have 
had  an  opportunity  to  compare  this  turkey  with 


Description  of  Varieties  269 

others  assert  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  profit- 
able kinds.  The  White  Hollands  grow  rapidly 
and  attain  a  heavy  weight  at  an  early  age. 

"  The  White  Hollands  are  perhaps  the  best  lay- 
ers among  turkeys.  It  is  sometimes  reckoned  as 
a  fault  that  few  hens  want  to  hatch  early  in  the 
season,  and  a  large  number  of  eggs  and  no  broody 
hens  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence.  ...  I 
believe  them  to  be  good  turkeys  and  worthy  of 
the  best  efforts  of  the  breeders  and  farmers  in 
general,  and  think  no  one  need  be  seriously  dis- 
appointed in  them  if  he  goes  ahead  properly  and 
knows  what  he  is  doing."  *  The  standard  weight 
for  White  Hollands  is  given  for  cock  26  pounds 
and  hen  16  pounds. 

Buff  turkey. — The  Buff  variety  is  thought  by 
many  to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  turkeys.  It  is 
not  known  how  the  variety  originated,  although 
it  was  probably  produced  by  crossing.  The  Buffs 
are  a  little  heavier  than  the  White  Hollands  and 
are  profitable  fowls. 

Slate  turkey.—  The  Slate  turkeys  in  many  re- 
spects are  very  much  like  the  Buffs.  The  color 
is  thought  by  many  to  be  the  chief  difference. 
They  are  fine -looking  fowls  and  are  to  be  recom- 
mended as  profitable  for  the  farm. 

Black  turkey.  —  This  is  an  old  variety.  It  has 
been  bred  in  England  for  a  long  time.  "In 

*Geo.  Enty,  in  "Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow  Them"— Myrick,  p.  28. 


270  Farm  Poultry 

certain  parts  of  England  it  was,  until  quite 
recently,  the  favorite  variety,  and  is  known  there 
as  the  Black  Norfolk."  * 


TURKEYS — GENERAL   CARE 

At  no  time  in, the  life  of  the  turkey  does  its 
wild  nature  assert  itself  more  than  at  the  laying 
season.  The  domesticated  turkey  hen  still  loves 
secrecy  as  regards  her  nesting  place.  Half- 
wild  turkeys,  when  given  their  liberty,  have 
frequently  eluded  all  attempts  on  the  part  of 
watchers  to  follow  them  and  to  locate  their  nests. 
Many  successful  turkey  raisers  who  do  not  keep 
the  breeding  fowls  confined  within  large  in- 
closures  provide  nesting  places  for  them  in  more 
or  less  secluded  places.  An  empty  barrel  turned 
on  its  side  or  pieces  of  wide  boards  nailed  together 
so  that  a  low  roof  is  formed  over  a  nest  on  the 
ground  answer  the  purpose.  As  a  good  turkey 
hen  will  lay  more  eggs  than  she  can  cover  well 
at  one  sitting,  it  is  customary  to  remove  the  eggs 
from  the  nest  daily  and  to  place  the  first  laid 
under  broody  hens.  The  last  eggs  should  be  given 
the  turkey  hen  to  hatch. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  rear  tur- 
keys by  means  of  artificial  incubators  and  brood- 
ers, but  in  many  instances  the  results  have  been 

*H.  S,  Babcock,  in  "Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow  Thera"-Myrick,  p.  22. 


Breeding  Stock  271 

far  from  satisfactory.  Most  turkey  raisers  depend 
upon  natural  methods  of  incubation  and  brood- 
ing. Turkey  eggs  hatch  in  twenty- eight  days. 

Selection  of  breeding  stock. — Many  farmers  un- 
doubtedly make  mistakes  in  selecting  young  and 
immature  birds  for  breeding  stock.  Experienced 
turkey  raisers  insist  on  breeding  from  mature  and 
well-tried  birds.  If  a  hen  proves  to  be  a  good 
breeder  and  a  careful  mother  she  should  be  kept  as 
long  as  she  proves  profitable.  The  young  of  mature 
parents  are  thought  to  be  considerably  stronger  than 
those  of  immature  fowls.  Two-  or  three -year  old 
toms  are  sometimes  preferred  to  older  ones  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  weight  which  older  birds  attain. 

"Mr.  Grinnell,  who  lives  on  a  farm  near  the 
Experiment  Station,  raises  from  50  to  60  turkeys 
every  season.  Others  in  his  neighborhood  have 
poor  success.  He  does  not  believe  in  changing 
gobblers  when  a  good  one  has  been  secured. 
When  he  gets  one  that  sires  good  stock  he  keeps 
him  as  long  as  he  is  good  for  anything.  The 
one  he  now  has  is  four  years  old.  The  hens  are 
also  kept  as  long  as  they  live.  .  .  .  One  hen  that 
he  has  had  for  five  years  was  said  to  have  been 
eight. years  old  when  he  bought  her.  She  still 
lays  from  two  to  three  litters  of  eggs  each  season, 
and  her  turkeys  are  larger  than  the  others.  "* 

Care  and  food  for  the  young. —  Newly  hatched 

*  Bulletin  No.  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


272  Farm  Poultry 

poults  are  very  delicate  and  require  close  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  attendant.  First  of  all, 
they  must  be  kept  dry.  Wet  or  damp  quarters 
should  be  avoided.  A  dry,  porous  soil  is  consid- 
ered much  more  satisfactory  than  a  heavy  one, 
though  the  latter  be  underdrained.  "Young  tur- 
keys should  not  be  out  in  heavy  showers  until 
their  backs  are  well  covered  with  feathers.  If 
they  get  wet  they  may  die  from  chill  unless  put 
in  a  warm  room  to  dry.  Black  or  red  pepper 
and  ginger  in  the  food  or  drinking  water  aid 
them  to  overcome  a  chill,  and  are  of  great  value 
on  cold  or  damp  days  and  are  a  preventive  of 
bowel  troubles  in  both  old  and  young  turkeys."* 

For  the  first  few  weeks  the  young  should  be 
kept  in  dry  places  and  not  permitted  to  travel 
through  tall  grass  when  it  is  wet.  During  the 
warm  and  dry  parts  of  the  day  they  may  be 
given  a  run  on  short  grass  or  cultivated  land. 
Many  poultrymen  prefer  placing  the  hen  in  a 
large,  airy  coop  and  giving  the  young  a  free 
run,  rather  than  to  confine  the  young  and  give  the 
hen  her  freedom.  In  either  case  it  is  advisable 
to  restrict  the  run  of  the  young  for  a  few  days. 
It  should  not  be  omitted  to  move  the  coops 
frequently,  that  the  young  may  be  brooded  on 
fresh  ground. 

The  first  food   should  be   soft  and  easily  di- 

*  Bulletin  No.  25,  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Food  for    Young  Fowls 


273 


gestible.  Most  turkey  raisers  highly  recommend 
hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  fine.  This  is  a  most 
excellent  food,  but  should  be  fed  in  moderation 
and  in  connection  with  other  soft  foods.  Stale 
bread  dipped  in  milk  and  allowed  to  drain  until 
it  becomes  dry  enough  to  crumble  is  a  most  ex- 
cellent first  food.  This  may  be  fed  until  the 


Fig.  89.    Turkey  house  -  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

young  are  several  days  old.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  bread,  or  any  other  food  for 
that  matter,  should  not  be  fed  in  a  sloppy  or 
very  moist  condition.  Coarse  bread  baked  for  the 
purpose,  if  softened  with  milk,  is  highly  prized. 
Scalded  bran  and  corn  meal  to  which  some  finely 
chopped  hard-boiled  eggs  have  been  added  is 
relished,  and  is  a  satisfactory  food.  As  the  poults 
become  older,  they  may  be  fed  bran,  Indian  meal 

R 


274  Farm  Poultry 

and  ground  oats  (the  hulls  removed)  which  have 
been  thoroughly  soaked.  Freshly  moistened  meal 
foods  are  not  equal  to  the  same  food  that  has 
become  thoroughly  softened  by  soaking  or  scald- 
ing. Thick  sour  milk  or  curd  may.  be  mixed  with 
the  soft  foods  to  good  advantage. 

When  the  birds  are  beginning  to  "feather  out," 
cracked  corn  may  be  'added  to  the  ration.  Some 
successful  poultry  raisers,  however,  -  recommend 
soaking  the  cracked  corn  at  first.  Later  in  the 
season  whole  corn  may  be  fed.  Old  corn  is  pre- 
ferred to  new. 

GUINEA   FOWLS 

Under  ordinary  farm  conditions  the  domes- 
ticated guineas  can  hardly  be  called  profitable 
farm  fowls.  Tney  lay  fairly  well  during  the  sum- 
mer time  if  given  a  wide  range,  but  owing  to 
the  disposition  of  the  hen  to  hide  her  nest  the 
eggs  are  often  entirely  lost.  Many  instances  are 
known  in  which  the  hen  has  secreted  her  nest 
and  continued  to  lay  until  it  became  well  filled, 
when  it  would  be  abandoned  for  another.  This 
in  turn  might  be  left  to  the  same  fate  as  the 
first.  Instances  are  known  of  three  nests  being 
well  filled  with  eggs  before  the  hen  showed  any 
disposition  to  incubate. 

Objections  have  been  made  to  the  fowl  on 
account  of  its  sharp,  screeching  voice.  It  is  true 


Guineas 


275 


that  guineas  make  more  noise  than  chickens  and 
that  their  voices  are  somewhat  piercing,  yet  they 
are  not  objectionable  to  most  people  unless  the 
poultry  yard  and  other  places  frequented  by  them 
are  very  near  the  dwelling  house.  The  writer 
has  heard  several  farmers  express  a  liking  for 


Fig.  90.    "A  guinea  hen  (one-sixth  size). 

these  birds  because  they  are  "  rather  noisy." 
They  are  "company."  Like  geese,  guineas  are 
inclined  to  give  an  alarm  if  the  poultry  yard  is 
molested. 

Guineas  like  a  wide  range.  They  prefer  to 
perch  far  from  the  ground — preferably  in  trees 
— although  they  will  not  infrequently  perch  with 


276  Farm  Poultry 

hens  in  poultry  houses  during  severe  weather, 
if  given  an  opportunity  to  do  so.  Guineas  are 
naturally  shy  and  are  easily  frightened,  although 
they  may  become  tame  with  kind  and  careful 
treatment.  They  are  not  specially  prized  for  the 
quality  of  their  flesh,  although  in  some  parts  of 
the  United  States  young  fowls  are  considered  a 
delicacy. 

PEAFOWLS 

Peafowls  are  reared  in  small  numbers  by  those 
who  delight  in  seeing  the  most  gorgeous  plumage 
of  domesticated  fowls.  They  are  not  reared  for 
their  flesh  nor  for  egg  production.  It  is  recorded,* 
however,  that  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI  of  Eng- 
land, peacocks  were  highly  esteemed  as  a  deli- 
cacy. In  some  respects  peafowls  are  quite  as  near 
the  wild  forms  from  which  they  have  descended 
as  any  species  of  domesticated  fowls.  They  delight 
in  perching  at  a  great  distance  from  the  ground 
and  frequently  fly  to  the  roofs  of  tall  farm  build- 
ings. They  fly  easily  and  gracefully. 

The  male  or  cock  bird  is  by  far  the  most  gor- 
geous of  farm  fowls.  Peafowls  are  reared  almost 
wholly  on  account  of  the  proud  and  brilliant 
appearance  of  the  male.  The  brilliant  coloring 
of  the  head  and  neck  feathers  and  his  large  and 
beautiful  tail,  make  him  a  source  of  delight  to 

#«Book  of  Poultry,"  Wright,  p.  531, 


Peafowls  and  Pigeons  277 

children  and  an  interesting  bird  to  adults.  The 
hen  is  modest  appearing  and  unattractive  in  color- 
ing. The  cock  is  generally  troublesome  in  the 
poultry  yard  on  account  of  his  disposition  to  kill 
other  kinds  of  poultry,  particularly  young  chick- 
ens and  ducks.  Cocks  have  been  known  to  attack 
mature  fowls  and  even  children  and  adults.  The 
male  does  not  acquire  his  most  brilliant  and  per- 
fect plumage  until  he  is  more  than  three  years  of 
age.  The  peacock  is  disliked  by  some  on  ac- 
count of  his  loud  screeching  voice,  which  he  is 
inclined  to  use  freely. 

PIGEONS 

While  pigeons  are  not  usually  mentioned  among 
the  various  kinds  of  profitable  farm  stock,  yet 
the  possibilities  of  profitable  returns  are  so  great 
that  a  somewhat  full  discussion  of  pigeon-rearing 
is  warranted.  However,  only  a  short  discussion 
will  be  devoted  to  the  business  as  yielding  money 
returns  on  the  investment.  To  lovers  of  animal 
life,  pigeon -rearing  offers  a  most  fascinating  field, 
particularly  to  the  boys  and  girls  who  delight 
in  caring  for  stock  that  they  may  call  their  own. 
Many  a  farm  boy  has  become  interested  in  ani- 
mal life  and  has  learned  many  things  which  have 
been  of  great  use  to  him  in  after  years,  that  he 
acquired  by  caring  for  and  studying  the  needs  of 


278  Farm  Poultry 

pets  which  had  been  given  wholly  to  his  charge. 
Farm  boys  become  dissatisfied  with  the  farm 
and  decide  to  leave  it  chiefly  for  two  reasons — 
because  they  are  not  interested  in  farm  life  and 
work,  and  because  they  have  not  been  taught 
how  to  make  quick  returns  and  good  profits  for 
the  money  invested.  The  rearing  of  pigeons  will 
often  afford  satisfactory  first  lessons  and  may  re- 
veal possibilities  that  will  be  sufficiently  enticing 
when  considered  from  a  standpoint  of  income 
alone.  Interest  in  animal  life,  particularly  those 
forms  that  are  easily  handled  and  controlled,  serves 
a  most  useful  purpose  in  leading  the  young  mind 
along  profitable  channels  of  development.  Inter- 
est in  pigeon -rearing  cannot  fail  to  develop  to 
some  extent  the  powers  of  observation.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  boy  who  sees  most  will 
have  the  best  understanding  of  the  subject  in 
question.  So  long  as  knowledge  is  power,  then 
those  who  are  the  closest  observers  will  not  only 
understand  best  the  matter  under  consideration 
but  will  be  best  prepared  to  meet  the  greater 
problems  that  each  individual  is  required,  sooner 
or  later,  to  solve  for  himself. 

The  care  of  pigeons  may  be  given  almost 
wholly  to  quite  young  boys  and  girls,  if  a  few 
simple  directions  for  feeding  and  care  be  under- 
stood and  a  suitable  home  be  provided  for  the 
birds.  On  mos't  farms  only  a  small  money  out- 


Pigeon  Hearing 


279 


lay  will  be  required  and  very  little  trouble  is 
necessary  to  prepare  comfortable  quarters  for 
breeding  pigeons,  particularly  if  the  young  be 
sold  as  squabs. 

"The  shelters  for  squab  breeders  should  not 
be  too  cold,  although  the  experienced  can  raise 
them  in  almost  any  old  shell  of  a  building,  as 


Fig.  91.    Pigeon  cote  and  aviary  — Rhode  Island  Agricultural  College. 

far  north  as  New  York  city.  The  fittings  are 
only  nests,  perches  and  drinking  and  bath  foun- 
tains, a  space  of  two  square  feet  of  floor  being 
counted  to  each  bird,  with  never  less  than  twice 
as  much  room  in  the  flight  yards,  in  the  open  air. 
The  flight  spaces  are  best  enclosed  by  inch-mesh 
wire  net,  as  this  excludes  sparrows,  which  are 
arrant  thieves  and  fighters.  The  netting  usually 
rians  overhead,  to  the  highest  point  of  the  roof."* 

*"  Pocket  Money  Poultry,"  Norys,  p.  140. 


280  Farm  Poultry 

A  fine  quality  of  squabs  finds  a  ready  market 
in  the  great  cities.  They  are  quoted  from  about 
50  cents  to  $3.75  per  dozen,  and  frequently  the 
expert  producers  obtain  nearly  twice  this  amount. 
For  the  money  outlay  squab-raising  offers  a  tempt- 
ing field  for  those  who  are  willing  to  give  atten- 
tion to  the  many  little  things.  To  those  who  are 
not  willing  to  observe  closely  the  needs  of  the 
birds  and  to  use  good  judgment  in  meeting  these 
demands,  pigeon -raising  will  probably  prove  un- 
satisfactory, affording  neither  pleasure  nor  profit. 
The  negligent  or  careless  person  should  not  enter 
into  the  poultry  business,  since  success  depends 
on  the  many  minor  things  which  cannot  be  neg- 
lected. Squab -rearing  may  be  made  very  profit- 
able if  "eternal  vigilance,"  the  price  of  success, 
be  given. 

Most  of  the  squabs  that  are  now  sold  in  the 
markets  of  the  large  cities  average  from  one- 
half  pound  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound  each, 
while  the  choicest  birds  may  weigh  nearly  twice 
as  much.*  Many  experienced  squab  raisers  pre- 
fer a  cross  of  Runts  and  Homers  for  fine  birds. 
The  mother  should  be  a  IJomer,  as  these  birds 
are  better  breeders  and  better  mothers  than  the 
Eunts. 

The  health  of  pigeons  should  receive  close 
attention.  They  should  be  given  an  opportunity 

*" Pocket  Money  Poultry,"  Norys,  page  142. 


Squab  Rearing 


281 


to  bathe,  and  such  conditions  should  be  provided 
as  will  produce  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous 
squabs. 

A  variety  of  grains  is  usually  fed.  Cracked 
corn,  wheat,  hulled  oats,  millet,  hemp,  and  other 
small  seeds  are  much  used.  As  light-colored 
squabs  are  preferred,  cracked  corn  is  a  favorite 
food.  Pigeons  are  particularly  fond  of  salt. 
Many  pigeon  raisers  keep  a  supply  of  salt  ac- 
cessible to  the  birds  at  all  times.  As  the  old 
birds  feed  the  squabs,  it  is  essential  that  the 
parents  be  well  fed.  A  clean  sanded  floor  is  an 
excellent  place  for  feeding  the  old  birds 


CHAPTER   XV 

PREPARING  AND   MARKETING   POULTRY  PRODUCTS 

THOSE  who  are  preparing  poultry  for  market 
should  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  have  the  products  reach 
the  market  in  the  most  perfect  condition.  Flesh 
that  is  clean  and  bright  always  presents  a  more 
attractive  appearance  than  that  which  is  discol- 
ored. Fowls  are  sometimes  discolored  as  the 
result  of  improper  methods  of  -packing  and  ship- 
ping. Careless  packing  and  rough  handling, 
—  the  latter  too  often  given  by  the  employees 
of  railroads  and  express  companies  —  frequently 
cause  a  good  article  to  reach  the  market  in  a  poor 
condition,  and  it  therefore  brings  a  low  price. 
It  is  the  privilege  of  every  shipper  to  prepare  his 
fowls  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  reach  the 
market  in  as  inviting  condition  as  possible.  The 
best  appearing  fowls  always  sell  at  a  higher  price 
than  equally  as  good  stock  that  has  been  im- 
properly prepared  or  is  untidy.  Commission  men 
state  that  properly  prepared  meat  will  readily 
sell  for  twice  as  much  as  an  equally  good  article 
that  is  poorly  arranged  and  uninviting. 

(282) 


Preparing  Poultry  for  Market  283 

DKESSING   POULTKY 

Those  who  have  taken  the  trouble  to  study 
the  conditions  of  the  markets  in  the  great  cities 
say,  without  hesitation,  that  the  good  stock  is 
sold  first  and  that  the  poor  and  indifferent  be- 
comes a  drug  on  the  market.  New  York  com- 
mission men  are  quite  positive  in  the  conviction 
that  shippers  who  are  able  to  prepare  their 
product  in  uniformly  fine  order  readily  acquire  a 
reputation  among  buyers,  enabling  them  to  se- 
cure a  somewhat  higher  price  than  the  same 
stock  would  bring  if  prepared  in  an  indifferent 
manner. 

In  order  to  arrange  products  for  market  in 
the  best  possible  manner,  it  is  necessary  to  study 
the  details  of  killing,  dressing  and  packing,  which 
will  enable  the  producer  to  send  not  only  those 
articles  which  the  market  demands,  but  to  send 
them  in  the  best  possible  condition.  Fowls  should 
not  be  fed  for  some  time  before  killing.  At 
least  twelve  hours,  and  in  many  cases  twenty -four 
hours,  should  elapse  after  the  last  feeding  before 
the  killing  takes  place.  At  any  rate,  the  crops 
of  the  chickens  should  become  entirely  empty. 
Some  cities  have  passed  ordinances  prohibiting 
the  selling  of  dressed  fowls  whose  crops  are  not 
free  from  food.  In  such  markets  the  law  makes 
it  imperative  that  solid  food  should  be  withheld 


284  Farm,  Poultry 

long  enough  before  killing  to  permit  the  crops 
to  become  entirely  empty. 

If  for  any  reason  a  few  fowls  should  gain 
access  to  food  just  before  killing  time,  and  it 
is  not  desirable  to  retain  them  longer  on  the 
farm,  they  may  be  killed  and  dressed  with  the 
rest,  and  after  picking,  a  short  clean-cut  incision 
may  be  made  through  the  skin,  which  will  per- 
mit the  removal  of  the  crop.  An  incision  should 
be  made  in  the  crop,  the  crop  turned  inside 
out,  thoroughly  cleaned  and  returned.  The 
practice  of  removing  grain  from  the  crop  by 
forcing  it  out  through  the  mouth  by  external 
pressure  is  not  recommended;  in  fact,  it  is 
condemned  in  positive  terms  by  dealers.  While 
in  some  instances  it  may  be  possible  to  empty 
the  crop  without  breaking  the  skin,  yet  it  will 
be  necessary  to  use  sufficient  force  in  many  cases 
'to  cause  discoloration. 

There  are  two  methods  used  in  preparing 
dressed  fowls  for  market.  These  are  known  as 
dry -picking  and  scalding.  It  may  be  stated  in 
a  general  way  that  the  finest  quality  of  chickens 
and  turkeys  commands  higher  prices  when  dry- 
picked.  On  the  other  hand,  lean  or  thin  poul- 
try does  not  present  so  good  an  appearance 
as  when  scalded  and  "plumped,"  as  will  be 
explained  later,  and  therefore  does  not  sell  so 
well.  Ducks  and  geese  are  usually  scalded, 


Killing  and  Picking  285 

with  the  exception  of  young,  fat  ducks,  which  are 
known  on  the  market  as  "green  ducks."  These 
are  usually  dry -picked. 

Killing. —  Those  who  are  required  to  perform 
the  operation  of  killing  fowls  should  bear  in 
mind  that  it  is  desirable  to  remove  all  the  blood 
from  the  body  that  can  be  withdrawn,  and  to 
cause  the  fowl  to  suffer  as  little  pain  as  possible. 
In  other  words,  the  operator  should  be  as  hu- 
mane as  circumstances  will  allow.  He  may,  at 
the  same  time,  prepare  his  birds  in  the  best  pos- 
sible manner. 

All  kinds  of  fowls  are  recommended  to  be 
killed  by  cutting  through  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
This  will  cut  through  an  artery,  which  will  cause 
the  blood  to  flow  freely.  A  sharp -pointed  knife 
should  be  used  for  this  purpose,  which  should 
pierce  the  base  of  the  brain;  it  will  cause  death 
at  once.  It  is  said  by  experts  that  a  fowl 
may  be  killed  so  quickly  that  the  blood  will  not 
flow  as  freely  as  desired  and  that  the  feathers 
will  be  removed  with  more  difficulty,  especially 
if  dry -picking  is  practiced.  The  ideal  condition 
is  to  have  the  knife  enter  the  brain  and  par- 
alyze the  fowl,  and  while  in  this  condition  to 
have  it  bleed  to  death.  If  the  fowl  becomes 
paralyzed  the  muscles  are  relaxed  and  the 
feathers  are  easily  removed.  Too  much  stress 
catniot  be  laid  on  the  importance  of  thorough 


286       ,  Farm  Poultry 

bleeding.  Americans  prefer  to  have  all  flesh  free 
from  blood.  The  keeping  quality  is  thought  to 
be  considerably  enhanced  by  thorough  bleeding. 
In  all  the  operations  of  killing  and  picking,  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  bruising  the  flesh, 
tearing  the  skin  or  breaking  the  bones. 

It  is  customary  to  suspend  fowls  by  the  feet 
before  they  are  killed.  In  the  case  of  heavy 
fowls  they  should  be  so  suspended  that  they  will 
not  strike  each  other  with  their  wings  when  flop- 
ping, or  strike  their  wings  against  any  hard 
object.  Fowls  bleed  best  when  suspended  head 
downward  at  the  time  of  killing. 

Dry -picking. —  Immediately  after  killing,  the 
feathers  should  be  removed  carefully  and  cleanly. 
Dressed  fowls  should  be  sent  to  market,  if  pos- 
sible, without  the  skin  being  broken  at  any 
place.  It  is  usually  customary  to  commence  pick- 
ing immediately  after  sticking.  "Green  ducks" 
and  broilers  are  usually  picked  while  the  bleed- 
ing is  taking  place.  As  soon  as  the  incision  is 
made  with  the  knife,  the  birds  are  stunned  by 
a  blow  on  the  head  and  then  picking  com- 
mences at  once.  It  is  essential  in  dry- picking 
to  remove  the  feathers  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  birds  are  killed. 

When  fowls  are  picked  dry,  to  be  shipped  in 
cold  weather,  they  should  be  hung  in  a  cool  place 
until  thoroughly  cold  before  they  are  packed. 


Dry -picking  and  Scalding  287 

Poultry  should  not  be  packed  until  all  of  the  ani- 
mal heat  has  disappeared.  A  cool  place  is  pref- 
erable to  one  so  cold  that  the  flesh  will  freeze 
quickly.  If  the  skin  is  wet  when  the  fowls  are 
packed,  they  are  likely  to  present  a  more  or  less 
discolored  appearance  when  offered  for  sale. 
When  dry-picked  fowls  are  to  be  packed  in  ice 
for  hot  weather  shipment,  they  may  be  plunged 
in  cold  water  for  a  short  time  immediately  after 
picking  and  then  placed  in  a  tank  of  ice  water 
and  left  for  several  hours.  Some  extensive  duck 
raisers  make  a  practice  of  leaving  the  picked 
ducks  in  cold  water  over  night.  Either  ice  water 
or  cold  spring  water  may  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Young  fowls,  especially  ducks,  that  have 
many  pin  feathers  are  sometimes  prepared  by 
shaving  with  a  sharp  knife  after  the  feathers 
are  removed.  This  removes  the  projecting  parts 
of  the  pin  feathers  and  will  help  to  place  the 
fowl  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  market. 
Of  course  white  birds  are  much  preferred  on 
this  account  to  colored  ones.  The  English  use 
a  short,  thin-bladed  knife  in  removing  the  pin 
feathers.  This  operation  is  called  "stubbing," 
and  is  generally  performed  by  women  and  chil- 
dren. 

Scalding. — When  birds  are  scalded  they  should 
be  immersed  in  hot  water  immediately  after  they 


288  Farm  Poultry 

are  through  bleeding.  The  water  should  be  a 
little  below  the  boiling  point.  It  is  recommended 
to  immerse  the  birds  thoroughly  in  the  water 
three  or  four  times,  lifting  them  out  between  each 
immersion  in  order  to  give  them  a  little  airing. 
Immediately  after  scalding,  chickens  and  turkeys 
should  be  picked  clean,  and  care  be  taken  not 
to  break  the  skin.  The  skin  of  young  fat  fowls 
is  more  likely  to  tear  than  that  of  older  ones. 
As  these  birds  are  the  most  valuable,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  exercise  the  greatest  care  and  skill  in 
preparing  them.  After  scalding  ducks  and  geese, 
it  is  recommended  to  wrap  them  in  a  cloth  for 
about  two  minutes,  in  order  that  the  down  may 
be  more  readily  removed  with  the  feathers. 

Plumping. — Commission  men  recommend  that 
scalded  poultry  be  "plumped"  after  picking.  That 
is,  after  the  fowls  are  carefully  picked,  they  should 
be  dipped  in  hot  water  for  a  few  seconds.  This 
water  should  be  about  the  same  temperature  as 
that  used  for  scalding,  perhaps  not  quite  so  warm. 
Then  they  are  removed  and  placed  at  once  in 
cold  water,  where  they  should  remain  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  minutes.  If  fowls  that  are  scalded 
and  "plumped"  in  this  manner  are  to  be  shipped 
dry,  they  should  be  hung  up  until  the  skin  be- 
comes thoroughly  dry.  If  they  are  to  be  packed 
in  ice  for  warm  weather  shipment  they  may 
be  placed  in  cold  water  for  several  hours,  when 


Preparing  for  Shipment  289 

they  will  be  ready  to  pack.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  dry  the  fowls  when  they  are  to  be  packed 
in  ice. 

In  scalding  fowls,  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  leave  them  in  the  water  too  long.  Over- scald- 
ing will  cause  the  outer  surface  of  the  skin  to 
peel  off,  and,  consequently,  they  will  not  present 
a  good  appearance.  If  they  are  under -scalded, 
the  feathers  cannot  be  removed  so  readily,  and 
salesmen  find  that  they  do  not  appear  so  well 
when  exposed  for  sale. 

PACKING  AND   SHIPPING 

If  the  fowls  are  to  be  packed  dry  for  cool 
weather  shipment,  neat  packages  that  are  clean, 
and  as  light  as  will  carry  the  contents  safely,  are 
to  be  preferred.  Uniform  packages  are  preferred 
to  various  kinds  of  rough  boxes.  Clean  barrels 
or  neatly  prepared  cases  should  be  used.  It  is 
recommended  to  use  cases  or  boxes  for  turkeys 
and  geese,  and  barrels  for  chickens.  In  pack- 
ing poultry,  it  is  customary  to  use  clean,  dry 
wheat  or  rye  straw.  The  straw  should  be  free 
from  chaff,  and  hand- threshed  is  preferred  to 
that  which  has  been  threshed  by  a  machine. 
A  layer  of  straw  should  be  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  package,  and  then  alternate  layers  of  poul- 
try and  straw  until  the  package  is  full.  Heavy 


290  Farm  Poultry 

paper  is  placed  by  some  poultry  shippers  between 
the  poultry  and  the  sides  of  the  package. 

All  fowls  should  be  perfectly  clean  and  dry 
before  packing.  If  there  is  any  moisture  or  blood 
about  the  head  it  should  be  removed  with  a  cloth. 
If  a  fowl  is  inclined  to  bleed  a  little  at  the  mouth, 
the  mouth  should  be  thoroughly  wiped  out  arid 
a  little  cotton  inserted  to  absorb  any  liquid  that 
might  otherwise  cause  discoloration. 

Packing  in  ice. — Large  barrels  are  usually  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose.  If  sugar  barrels  are  used, 
they  should  be  thoroughly  washed,  preferably 
with  hot  water,  to  remove  all  traces  of  sugar. 
Expert  packers  place  a  layer  of  cracked  ice  in 
the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  then  a  layer  of  poultry, 
then  another  layer  of  ice,  and  so  on  until  the 
barrel  is  full.  After  the  top  layer  of  poultry  is 
in  place,  there  should  be  a  layer  of  cracked  ice 
placed  on  top.  On  this  layer  spread  a  piece  of 
burlap  which  is  sufficiently  large  to  cover  well 
the  top  of  the  barrel.  On  this  burlap  some 
cracked  ice  may  be  placed  and  on  top  of  all  a 
large  piece  of  ice.  Over  all  place  another  piece 
of  burlap.  This  may  be  held  in  place  by  driv- 
ing the  top  hoop  on  over  the  burlap. 

It  is  recommended  to  place  the  fowls  heads 
outward,  backs  up  and  the  feet  toward  the  middle 
of  the  barrel.  That  is,  the  fowls  as  placed  in 
the  barrel  should  slope  from  the  center  toward 


Packing  for  Shipment  291 

the  staves.  This  will  cause  the  ice  as  it  melts 
to  work  from  the  center  toward  the  outside  of 
the  barrel.  In  transit  the  ice  nearest  to  the  out- 
side of  the  barrel  will  melt  first.  It  is,  therefore, 
of  considerable  importance  to  have  those  parts  of 
the  fowls  nearest  to  the  outside  of  the  barrel 
cooled  by  the  ice  which  is  in  the  center  of  the 
barrel.  The  water  and  ice  from  the  center  will 
continually  work  toward  the  outside. 

Frozen  poultry. — Poultry  is  frequently  shipped 
during  cold  weather  in  a  frozen  condition.  Com- 
mission men  recommend  that  only  the  best  quality 
of  poultry  should  be  shipped  in  this  manner. 
Only  dry -picked  fowls  should  be  selected  for 
freezing.  When  poultry  is  frozen  by  natural 
out-of-door  temperature,  cases  may  be  filled  when 
the  fowls  are  thoroughly  frozen  and  the  tem- 
perature is  low.  It  is  not  necessary  to  use  ice 
in  packing  when  frozen  fowls  are  shipped.  Poul- 
try that  is  frozen  solid  may  be  kept  for  a  long 
time,  even  for  months,  provided  it  does  not  thaw 
out. 

Marking  packages. — If  dressed  poultry  is  sent 
to  middlemen,  each  package  should  be  marked 
with  the  name  and  address  of  the  commission 
man  and  also  with  the  name  and  address  of 
the  sender.  It  is  also  well  to  mark  on  each 
package  its  contents,  whether  chickens,  fowls, 
turkeys,  ducks  or  geese,  and  the  number  of  birds 


292  Farm  Poultry 

or  gross  weight.  It.  should  not  be  neglected  to 
forward  advice  by  mail,  giving  a  correct  statement 
of  all  goods  sent.  If  inferior  or  second  quality 
fowls  are  shipped,  it  is  always  best  to  state  to 
the  commission  man  the  contents  of  the  pack- 
age and  also  the  quality.  If  a  poor  quality  of 
goods  is  sent,  he  is  sure  to  find  it  out,  and  it 
may  save  him  considerable  annoyance  if  he  knows 
what  the  package  contains  before  it  is  opened. 

Time  of  shipment. — When  poultry  or  eggs  are 
sent  to  commission  men,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  these  products,  if  for  immediate  sale, 
should  reach  them  in  the  middle  or  early  part  of 
the  week.  Many  commission  men  sell  very  little 
after  Friday  noon.  In  a  general  way,  it  may  be 
stated  that  Saturday  is  retailers'  day;  that  the 
retailers  are  supposed  to  have  their  stock  on  hand 
before  Saturday,  and  that  they  do  not  go  to  the 
commission  men  for  their  supplies  during  that 
day.  Shipments  are  often  made  so  that  they 
reach  their  destination  late  in  the  week  and  are, 
therefore,  carried  over  until  the  beginning  of 
the  next  week. 

English  and  German  methods. — The  English 
method  of  preparing  fowls  for  market  is,  in  many 
respects,  very  different  from  that  in  vogue  in 
the  United  States,  and  undoubtedly  would  not 
be  acceptable  to  the  most, fastidious  in  this  coun- 
try, who  have  become  accustomed  to  other  meth- 


European  Methods  293 

ods  of  dressing  and  marketing  fowls.  The  Eng- 
lish method  of  preparing  young  fowls  for  market, 
which  have  been  fattened  by  the  cramming  pro- 
cess and  which  afford  a  most  delicate  flesh,  is 
to  kill  them  without  bleeding.  While  in  the 
United  States  great  stress  is  laid  on  removing 
as  much  blood  as  possible  from  the  body,  the 
English  prefer  not  to  have  the  fowl  bled  at  all. 
The  operator  holds  the  fowl  with  his  left  hand 
and  grasps  the  head  with  his  right.  He  gives  a 
forcible,  forward  pull  with  his  right  hand,  hold- 
ing the  head  at  right  angles  to  the  neck.  He 
uses  enough  force  to  dislocate  the  neck  just  be- 
low the  head.  This  kills  the  fowl  at  once  and 
frequently  causes  considerable  blood  to  settle  in 
the  neck,  although  no  blood  leaves  the  body. 
When  dry -picking  is  practiced  the  fowls  are 
picked  at  once  after  the  neck  is  dislocated.  Pick- 
ers become  very  expert  in  dry-picking  fowls.  As 
the  hand  moves  back  and  forth  over  the  body 
the  feathers  gradually  disappear,  and  in  less  time 
than  it  requires  to  describe  the  operation  prop- 
erly an  expert  picker  will  have  the  feathers 
removed  from  a  good  specimen.  While  the  Eng- 
lish do  not  meet  our  requirements  as  regards 
the  drawing  of  blood,  yet  in  some  respects  they 
take  more  pains  in  preparing  the  birds  for  market 
than  Americans  do. 

As  soon  as  the  birds  are  picked,  they  are  fre- 


294  Farm    Poultry 

quently  placed  on  what  is  known  as  a  "forming 
machine,"  prepared  for  the  purpose  and  weighted, 
in  order  to  make  the  bodies  appear  plump.  The 
legs  are  folded  underneath  the  body,  which  gives 
a  plumper  appearance.  Before  the  fowls  are 
placed  on  the  machine  the  breast  bone  is  some- 
times broken  down,  though  not  always.  The 
stern  of  the  fowl  is  pressed  firmly  against  a 
smooth,  hard  object  in  order  to  give  it  a  flattened 
appearance.  This  appearance  is  still  further  in- 
creased by  the  use  of  the  machine  on  which  the 
fowls  are  placed.  They  are  left  on  the  shelves 
until  cool.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are  sent  to 
a  near-by  market  before  the  animal  heat  has  left 
the  body.  The  English  method  of  preparing 
fowls  for  market  has  some  advantages  over  that 
in  use  in  the  United  States.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  fowls  will  appear  plumper  when  cooled 
on  a  "forming  machine,"  after  the  English  fash- 
ion, than  when  hung  up  by  the  feet  to  cool  ac- 
cording to  the  almost  universal  custom  in  America. 
The  "forming  machine,"*  see  Fig.  92,  is  made 
by  arranging  conveniently  a  series  of  shelves  so 
that  each  shelf  has  a  backboard  placed  at  nearly 
a  right  angle  to  it.  The  shelves  slope  backward 
somewhat,  which  keeps  the  fowls  which  are  placed 
upon  them  snugly  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  shelf 
and  the  backboard.  The  width  of  the  shelf  is 

»«  Fattening  Fowls,"  E.  Cobb. 


The   "Forming   Machine" 


295 


determined  somewhat  by  the  size  of  the  fowls 
to  be  placed  upon  it.  Those  who  are  extensively 
engaged  in  fattening  fowls  have  different  sizes 
of  "forming  machines."  For  medium-sized 
chickens,  shelves  about  seven  inches  wide  are 
used.  The  English  become  very  skilful  in  using 
the  machine  to  the  best  advantage.  The  opera- 


Fig.  92.    An  English  "forming  machine,"  which  is  used  to  give  a  plump 
appearance  to  dressed  chickens. 

tion  of  preparing  the  fowls  by  the  use  of  this 
machine  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows: 
They  first  squeeze  out  any  matter  from  the  vent, 
then  grasp  the  bird,  back  uppermost,  with  both 
hands.  The  thumbs  are  placed  on  the  back  with 
the  fingers  clasping  the  legs,  which  are  bent 
underneath  the  body.  While  held  in  this  position 


296  Farm  Poultry 

the  bird  is  jammed  against  a  smooth  wall  or 
post,  which  forces  the  "parson's  nose"  upward 
so  that  it  points  above  the  back.  During  this 
operation  the  body  is  held  firmly,  but  care  is 
taken  not  to  mar  the  skin.  The  bird  is  placed 
carefully  in  the  machine  so  that  the  "parson's 


Fig.  93.  A  capon  as  prepared  for 
the  English  market  by  use  of  a 
"forming  machine."  From  "Fat- 
tening Fowls,"  by  Cobb. 


nose"  is  held  straight  up  against  the  backboard, 
the  head  and  neck  hanging  over  the  front  of  the 
shelf.  When  the  shelf  is  filled  with  birds,  that 
are  tightly  packed  side  by  side,  a  board  about 
four  inches  wide  is  placed  on  the  fowls  and 
heavily  weighted.  They  are  left  in  this  position 
until  cold.  See  Fig.  93. 


Shipping  Live  Poultry  297 

The  English  frequently  break  down  the  breast 
bone  of  young  fowls  that  are  not  very  fat,  in  order 
to  give  them  a  plumper  appearance.  This  may 
be  done  by  grasping  the  fowl  with  both  hands 
and  pressing  with  the  thumbs  on  the  breast  until 
the  bone,  or  the  structure  which  supports  it, 
breaks  and  leaves  the  fowl  with  a  less  prominent 
breast.  The  Germans  frequently  break  down 
the  breast  bone  of  chickens  and  ducks  by  strik- 
ing a  smart  blow  on  the  most  prominent  part 
of  the  bone  with  a  smooth,  well-rounded  paddle. 

SHIPPING   LIVE   POULTKY 

When  live  poultry  is  shipped  long  distances 
to  market,  it  should  be  placed  in  coops  which  are 
high  enough  to  permit  the  fowls  to  stand  erect. 
It  is  also  an  advantage,  and  will  give'  comfort  to 
the  occupants  of  the  coop,  if  the  top  is  made 
of  slats  which  are  far  enough  apart  so  that  they 
may  straighten  up  and  pass  their  heads  between 
the  slats. 

Shipping  crates  or  coops  should  be  as  light  as 
is  consistent  with  the  requisite  strength.  Large 
and  heavy  crates  are  awkward  to  handle  and 
are  expensive  to  transport.  Large  coops  on  many 
accounts  are  not  so  desirable  as  small  ones,  par- 
ticularly if  they  are  well  filled  with  heavy  fowls. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  shipping 


298  Farm    Poultry 

crates  or  coops  are  required  to  be  handled  quickly, 
and  if  they  are  heavy,  rougher  usage  is  given 
them  than  would  be  given  to  smaller  ones.  These 
coops  are  usually  sent  by  express,  and  the  em- 
ployees of  the  express  companies  find  it  neces- 
sary to  work  rapidly  and  often  are  prevented 
from  handling  the  coops  carefully. 

If  large  coops  are  used,  they  should  have 
one  or  more  partitions  across  them  so  that  the 
fowls  will  not  all  be  thrown  to  one  side,  if  for 
any  reason  the  coop  becomes  tilted.  When  tilted, 
large  coops  without  partitions  cause  great  dis- 
comfort to  the  occupants  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  coop,  and  in  many  cases  if  the  coop  remains 
tipped  for  any  considerable  time,  death  may  re- 
sult from  suffocation. 

It  is  important  that  the  fowls  of  a  crate  or 
coop  should  be  uniform;  that  is,  the  sexes  should 
not  be  shipped  in  the  same  division  of  a  crate 
and  young  fowls  should  not  be  sent  with  old 
ones.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  commission 
man  or  dealer  can  find  ready  sale  for  a  uniform 
lot  of  fowls  but  is  unable  to  dispose  of  a  mixed 
lot.  It  is  often  inconvenient,  if  not  impossible, 
for  him  to  sort  and  grade  them,  consequently 
the  fowls  are  sold  at  a  sacrifice.  Middlemen 
and  dealers  of  the  great  cities  are  busy  and  are 
accustomed  to  do  a  great  deal  of  business  in 
a  short  time.  They  do  not  have  the  time  and 


Shipping   Live   Poultry  and  Eggs  299 

conveniences  for  the  grading  that  should  be  done 
before  the  fowls  are  placed  in  the  shipping 
crates.  They  want  things  ready. 


HANDLING   EGGS 

Eggs  that  are  not  perfectly  clean  should  not 
be  sent  to  market.  Indifferent  or  careless  poul- 
trymen  permit  the  nests  to  become  fouled,  and 
many  eggs  are  not  clean  .when  gathered.  Eggs 
may  be  stained  from  nest  material,  and  they  are 
sometimes  colored  with  blood,  particularly  the 
first  eggs  of  pullets.  Stains  of  various  kinds 
may  be  readily  removed  with  a  moistened  cloth 
on  which  has  been  dusted  a  little  cooking  soda. 
Poultrymen  who  make  a  specialty  of  fancy  eggs 
are  particular  to  send  clean  eggs  to  market, 
and  also  take  considerable 
pains  to  ship  only  those 
of  uniform  size  and  color. 
Uniformity  is  of  great  im- 
portance when  the  highest 
prices  are  to  be  secured. 
As  a  fruit-grower  recog- 
nizes that  a  few  large  Fig.  94. 

i  i  •         i  *j_i  A  convenient  egg-carrier. 

apples    when    mixed    with 

those  of  medium  size  do  positive  injury,  so  far 
as  the  market  value  is  concerned,  so  expert  egg 
producers  recognize  that  a  few  large  eggs  mixed 


300  Farm  Poultry 

with  those  of  average  size  detract  from  the  ap- 
pearance, and,  consequently,  from  the  market 
value.  The  purchaser  is  attracted  by  uniform- 
ity. If  he  sees  that  all  the  eggs  on  top  of 
the  crate  are  of  uniform  size,  color,  and  shape, 
he  naturally  expects  uniformity  throughout.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  he  finds  that  they  are  of  all 
sizes,  he  cannot  expect  uniformity  in  the  lower 
layers.  If  one's  flock  consists  of  pure-bred  stock, 
the  eggs  should  be  fairly  uniform  in  shape  and 
color  and  also  in  size,  although  large  eggs  and 
abnormally  small  ones  will  occasionally  appear; 
these  may  be  kept  for  home  consumption  or  the 
local  market. 

Much  has  been  said  about  marketing  eggs  in 
a  strictly  fresh  condition.  Those  who  have  had 
years  of  experience,  and  have  established  a  repu- 
tation that  has  become  almost  national,  are  con- 
vinced that  the  market  will  not  distinguish  be- 
tween an  egg  one  day  old  and  one  four  days  old. 
An  egg  four  or  five  days  old  is  in  a  perfectly 
fresh  condition,  if  it  has  had  good  treatment. 
If  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  heat  of  an  incu- 
bator for  that  length  of  time,  it  would  not  be 
fresh.  Eggs  may  be  sent  to  market  hundreds 
of  miles  by  express  and  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  consumer  when  not  more  than  a  few  days 
old.  Whenever  a  poultryman  who  aims  to  pro- 
duce the  finest  quality  of  eggs  desires  to  estab- 


Shipping   Eggs 


301 


lish  a  reputation  for  himself,  it  will  probably  be 
necessary  for  Mm,  at  first,  to  send  his  eggs 
under  a  guaranty  that  they  were  produced  by 
his  own  flock,  and  that  he  knows  them  to  be 
strictly  first-class  in  every  respect. 

Shipping  cases. — Eggs  are  usually  sent  to 
market  in  shipping  crates  which  are  constructed 
specially  for  this  purpose.  The  standard  size 
crate  holds  thirty 
dozens.  See  Fig. 
95.  These  crates, 
or  shipping  cases, 
contain  trays  which 
fit  into  the  outer 
case,  one  above  the 
other.  The  trays  are 
divided  by  paste- 
board partitions  into  many  separate  compart- 
ments, each  compartment  holding  one  egg. 
Some  shipping  cases  have  wire  springs  instead 
of  the  pasteboard  partitions  to  hold  the  eggs. 
The  English  prefer  what  is  known  as  the 
Irish  shipping  case.  This  consists  of  a  case 
not  unlike  a  small  dry  goods  box.  In  this  is 
placed  a  layer  of  sea  grass  similar  to  that  used 
in  packing  china  and  glassware.  The  grass 
is  placed  in  the  form  of  a  shallow  hen's  nest. 
This  is  filled  with  eggs.  On  these  is  placed 
another  layer  of  sea  grass  and  another  layer  of 


Pig.  95.    A  thirty-dozen  egg-shipping  case. 


302  Farm  Poultry 

eggs,  the  layers  of  eggs  and  sea  grass  alternating 
until  the  case  is  nearly  full.  More  sea  grass  is 
then  put  on  and  the  cover  fastened  by  nails  or 
screws.  While  this  case  is  preferred  by  the  Eng- 
lish, it  is  doubtful  whether  it  would  be  sufficient 
to  withstand  the  rough  usage  given  by  the  Ameri- 
can express  companies  and  freight  lines. 

Many  commission  men  prefer  to  have  eggs 
shipped  to  them  in  barrels,  packed  in  dry  fine- 
cut  clean  wheat  or  rye  straw.  A  barrel  will 
hold  about  seventy  dozen,  if  properly  packed. 

PRESERVING  EGGS 

During  the  spring  and  early  summer  months, 
when  a  large  proportion  of  the  hens  that  are 
kept  on  farms  are  laying,  the  price  of  eggs  is 
frequently  very  low,  particularly  in  local  markets 
where  most  of  the  farm  eggs  are  sold.  In  such 
times  many  eggs  are  preserved  until  late  fall, 
when  the  price  is  usually  the  highest.  Many 
persons  make  a  business  of  preserving  eggs  in 
order  to  reap  the  benefit  of  the  advance  in  price ; 
others  preserve  them  in  times  of  plenty  for 
home  consumption  when  the  hens  are  not  lay- 
ing. Many  others  would  attempt  to  keep  them 
if  they  but  knew  of  a  simple  and  safe  way  of 
preserving  them.  To  such  persons  it  may  be 
said  that  there  is  no  well-known  way  of  keeping 


Egg   Preservatives  303 

eggs  absolutely  fresh  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time.  There  are  several  methods,  however, 
that  are  sufficiently  satisfactory  to  warrant  the 
preservation  of  eggs  both  for  the  market  and  for 
home  use.  Preserved  eggs  are  thought  to  be 
injured  by  cold  sooner  than  fiesh  ones.  The  fol- 
lowing gives  the  results  of  experiments  made  in 
Germany  with  various  preservatives:* 

"The  Berliner  Markthallenzeitung  reports  about 
experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
most  rational  method  of  preserving  eggs.  .  .  . 
Twenty  methods  were  selected  for  these  experi- 
ments. In  the  first  days  of  July,  four  hundred 
fresh  eggs  were  prepared  according  to  these 
methods  (twenty  eggs  for  each  method),  to  be 
opened  for  use  at  the  end  of  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary. .  .  .  After  eight  months  of  preservation 
the  eggs  were  opened  for  use,  and  the  twenty 
different  methods  employed  gave  the  most  hetero- 
geneous results:  .  .  . 

1.  Eggs  put  for  preservation  in  salt  water  were  all  bad. 

2.  Eggs  wrapped  in  paper,  80  per  cent  bad. 

3.  Eggs  preserved  in  a  solution  of  salicylic  acid  and  glycerin, 

80  per  cent  bad. 

4.  Eggs  rubbed  with  salt,  70  per  cent  bad. 

5.  Eggs  preserved  in  bran,  70  per  cent  bad. 

6.  Eggs  provided  with  a  cover  of  paraffin,  70  per  cent  bad. 

7.  Eggs  varnished  with  a  solution  of  glycerin  and  salicylic 

acid,  70  per  cent  bad. 

*  United  State*  Consular  Reports,  Dec.,  1897,  pp.  563,  564.  —  Thieriot. 


304  Farm  Poultry 

8.  Eggs  put  in  boiling  water  for  twelve  to  fifteen  seconds, 

50  per  cent  bad. 

9.  Eggs  treated  with  a  solution  of  alum,  50  per  cent  bad. 

10.  Eggs  put  in  a  solution  of  salicylic  acid,  50  per  cent  bad. 

11.  Eggs  varnished  with_water-glass  (wasserglas),  40  per  cent 

bad. 

12.  Eggs  varnished  with  collodion,  40  per  cent  bad. 

13.  Eggs  covered  with  lac,  40  per  cent  bad. 

14.  Eggs  varnished  with  sward,  20  per  cent  bad. 

15.  Eggs  preserved  in  ashes  of  wood,  20  per  cent  bad. 

16.  Eggs  treated  with  boric  acid  and  water-glass,  20  per  cent 

bad. 

17.  Eggs  treated  with  manganate  of  potassa,  20  per  cent  bad. 

18.  Eggs  varnished  with  vaseline,  all  good. 

19.  Eggs  preserved  in  lime-water,  all  good. 

20.  Eggs  preserved  in  a  solution  of  water-glass,  all  good. 

"The  last  three  methods  are  consequently  to  be 
considered  the  best  ones,  especially  the  preserva- 
tion in  a  solution  of  water-glass,  as  varnishing  the 
eggs  with  vaseline  takes  too  much  time,  and  the 
treatment  with  lime-water  sometimes  commun- 
icates to  the  eggs  a  disagreeable  odor  and 
taste." 

Water-glass .* — "We  tried  the  keeping  of  eggs 
with  sodium  silicate  (water-glass)  with  good  re- 
sults. Sodium  silicate  is  a  compound  containing 
silicon,  sodium  and  oxygen  in  the  proportion  of 
one,  two  and  three  respectively.  It  can  be  pur- 
chased from  druggists  in  the  form  of  a  semi-fluid 
resembling  thick  sugar  syrup,  for  which  it  might 
easily  be  mistaken. 

*24th  Annual  Report  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  pp.  193,  194. 


Egg   Preservatives  305 

"An  experiment  was  conducted  in  our  depart- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  most 
effective  degree  of  concentration.  The  result  of 
the  experiment  is  of  considerable  importance, 
inasmuch  as  the  cost  of  the  mixture  may  be 
greatly  reduced  without  destroying  its  value. 

"On  the  27th  of  May,  we  took  twelve  dozen 
eggs,  all  known  to  be  peifectly  fresh,  and  pre- 
pared the  following  solutions: 

No.  1.  One  part  of  water-glass  in  the  semi-fluid  form  to  ten 

parts  water. 
No.  2.  One  part  water-glass  in  the  semi-liquid  form  to  fifteen 

parts  water. 
No.  3.  One  part  water-glass  in  the  semi-liquid  form  to  twenty 

parts  water. 

"The  first  solution  was  found  to  be  too  strong, 
as  it  caused  the  eggs  to  float.  The  second  was 
all  right  in  this  respect.  The  third,  though  much 
weaker,  gave  perfect  satisfaction.  We  divided 
the  eggs  into  three  lots  of  four  dozen  each,  and 
put  one  lot  into  each  solution.  We  tested  them 
from  time  to  time,  and  in  every  case  found  them 
perfectly  fresh;  and,  on  breaking,  we  noticed  that 
the  yolk  stood  up  exactly  as  in  new-laid  eggs, 
and  did  not  show  the  slightest  tendency  towards 
decay. 

"We  tested  one -half  dozen  from  each  solution 
on  the  first  of  December,  and  could  not  detect 
any  difference  in  the  appearance  or  quality  in 


306  Farm  Poultry 

the  eggs  out  of  the  different  solutions,  all  being 
perfectly  fresh  after  being  in  the  solution  six 
months.  .  . 

"In  order  to  use  water-glass  successfully,  the 
following  plan  should  be  adopted:  Take  one  part 
by  measure  of  water-glass,  say  one  gallon,  and 
twenty  parts  by  measure  of  water  that  has  been 
boiled  (twenty  gallons),  and  allow  the  water  to 
cool;  then  place  the  water-glass  and  water  in  a 
vessel;  stir  the  ingredients  well  together;  put  the 
eggs  into  the  tub  or  vat  in  which  they  are  to 
be  kept,  and  pour  the  solution  over  them  until 
the  topmost  layer  is  completely  covered.  The 
reason  for  boiling  the  water  is  to  kill  any  putre- 
factive germs  which  may  be  in  the  water  at  the 
time.  If  water-glass  is  purchased  by  the  cwt., 
it  should  be  procured  for  $2.50  to  $3  per  cwt. 
(112  Ibs.). 

"So  far  as  we  know  this  is  the  best  solution  yet 
tried  for  the  preservation  of  eggs.  When  taken 
out  of  it  the  eggs  have  the  appearance  of  fresh- 
laid  eggs,  and  when  they  are  broken  the  yolk 
stands  up  exactly  as  in  new-laid  eggs,  without 
showing  the  slightest  tendency  toward  decay. 
It  is  first  necessary,  before  boiling  eggs  that  have 
been  kept  in  this  solution,  as  in  lime  pickle,  to 
puncture  the  shell  with  a  needle,  otherwise  the 
shell  will  crack  as  soon  as  placed  in  hot  water, 
owing  to  the  pores  of  the  shell  being  closed." 


Egg   Preservatives  307 

Lime-water.— A.  most  satisfactory  lime-water 
preservative  may  be  made  of  the  following  in- 
gredients : 

X  bu.  fresh  quicklime. 
15  Ibs.  salt. 
%  Ib.  cream  of  tartar. 
40  gallons  of  water. 

Slake  the  lime  thoroughly  and  add  the  water 
and  salt.  Stir  it  well.  Dissolve  the  cream  of 
tartar  in  a  little  water  and  add  to  the  whole.  Stir 
well.  Let  the  solution  stand  until  it  is  fully 
settled.  Remove  the  clear  liquid  by  dipping  or  by 
means  of  a  siphon.  Place  the  liquid  in  a  cask  or 
tank  and  put  in  the  eggs.  It  is  desirable  to  keep 
the  eggs  in  a  cool  place  that  has  an  even  tem- 
perature. Have  at  least  one  and  one -half  inches 
of  the  liquid  above  the  eggs.  New  oak  casks 
should  not  be  used  on  account  of  the  liability  to 
color  the  eggs. 

Cold  storage. — Eggs  that  are  kept  in  large 
quantities  by  dealers  are  placed  chiefly  in  cold 
storage.  A  low,  even  temperature  is  maintained 
by  the  use  of  ice,  or  by  means  of  ice  machines. 
Ice  machines  have  largely  superseded  the  use 
of 'natural  ice  in  large  establishments. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

DISEASES    AND    ENEMIES 

ONLY  an  exhaustive  treatise  by  an  expert  can 
properly  discuss  the  many  diseases  of  domestic 
fowls.  Many  of  the  troubles  are  insidious  and 
are  not  yet  well  understood.  However,  a  few 
general  hints  on  the  more  common  diseases,  and 
a  discussion  of  some  of  the  parasites,  may  be 
valuable  to  those  who  have  not  the  time  or  in- 
clination to  study  the  subject  in  detail.  The  one 
paramount  safeguard  against  disease  is  thorough 
cleanliness;  then  avoid  introducing  infected  fowls. 

LICE 

Various  kinds  of  domesticated  fowls  and  wild 
birds  are  infested  with  parasites  that  are  known 
under  the  popular  name  of  "lice."  There  are 
several  species  of  lice  which  infest  chickens. 
Some  kinds  are  found  only  on  a  certain  class 
of  poultry,  while  others  are  sometimes  found  on 
more  than  one  kind.  There  are  at  least  four 
species  which  are  very  troublesome  to  chicken 
raisers,  particularly  to  those  who  do  not  keep 

(308) 


Lice  and  Filth  309 

their  poultry -yards  and  houses  in  a  cleanly  con- 
dition. Filth  and  dampness  seem  to  favor  the 
propagation  of  these  pests.  Fowls  are  naturally 
cleanly,  particularly  those  that  have  their  liberty 
and,  consequently,  live  under  conditions  nearest 
the  natural  ones.  Weak  fowls  are  always  more 
likely  to  be  troubled  with  lice  than  are  strong, 
healthy,  vigorous  ones.  Many  years  ago  it  was 
thought  that  filth  and  dampness  produced  lice. 
Lice  can  be  produced  only  by  the  introduction  of 
an  infected  bird  or  by  placing  the  bird  'in  in- 
fected quarters.  The  life  history  of  these  para- 
sites is  so  well  known  that  it  is  not  thought 
possible  for  them  to  be  introduced  in  any  other 
way.  The  species  of  lice  which  infest  chickens 
vary  considerably  as  to  their  shape  and  size,  yet 
in  their  habits  they  closely  resemble  each  other. 
They  are  very  small  insects,  varying  from  one- 
fifth  to  less  than  one  -  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  These  parasites  rarely  pierce  the  skin 
and  suck  the  blood,  as  do  mites  and  fleas. 
They  cause  much  annoyance  by  crawling  over 
the  surface,  and  sometimes  they  bite  the  skin 
in  a  way  that  causes  considerable  irritation  and 
perhaps  some  inflammation.  When  fowls  are 
once  infested  they  may  become  unthrifty  and 
unprofitable  if  not  given  proper  care.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  a  single  pair  of  lice  may  pro- 
duce, through  the  quickly  successive  generations 


310  Farm   Poultry 

which  would  be  reared  within  three  months, 
more  than  100,000  individuals.  As  the  weaker 
fowls  of  the  flock  are  most  likely  to  be  infested, 
lice  are  often  detected  by  the  unthrifty  condition 
of  such  birds.  Upon  examination,  large  numbers 
of  these  lice  may  be  seen  crawling  over  the  skin 
underneath  the  feathers.  They  will  likely  be 
most  prevalent  on  those  parts  which  the  fowl 
cannot  reach  with  the  bill. 

Remedies. — Fowls  may  be  effectually  treated 
in  several  ways.  Substances  may  be  put  upon 
the  bird  which  will  poison  the  lice,  or  the  pests 
may  be  driven  off  by  making  the  fowl  an  uncon- 
genial home  for  them,  or  they  may  be  killed  by 
the  application  of  substances,  like  oil,  which 
stop  the  breathing  pores  and  thus  cause  them 
to  die  of  suffocation.  The  last  plan  is  prefer- 
able in  the  case  of  young  chickens  and  weak 
fowls.  Little  chickens  when  but  a  few  days 
old  are  frequently  infested  with  lice  from  the 
mother  or  from  the  surroundings.  As  these  little 
chickens  are  delicate,  a  few  lice  will  cause 
serious  trouble.  In  this  case,  it  is  usually  advis- 
able to  place  a  few  drops  of  oil  on  the  head 
and  perhaps  on  the  wings  and  throat  of  each 
chicken.  Sweet  oil  or  lard  oil  may  be  used. 
Other  oils  of  about  the  same  consistency  may 
answer  the  purpose  quite  as  well.  Older  fowls 
should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  take  dust 


Remedies'  311 

baths.  This  is  nature's  method  and  is  effectual 
if  the  fowls  will  bathe  thoroughly.  Many  of  the 
heavier  fowls,  however,  do  not  care  to  take  dust 
baths  frequently,  nor  to  do  the  work  thoroughly 
whan  they  undertake  it;  consequently  it  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  use  artificial  methods  to  kill 
or  drive  away  the  lice,  when  they  once  become 
well  established  on  adult  fowls.  Powdered  sul- 
fur -or  fresh  insect  powder  dusted  well  among 
the  feathers  is  found  to  be  efficient.  Fowls  are 
sometimes  placed  in  comparatively  tight  boxes 
with  their  heads  protruding  through  close-fitting 
openings,  the  box  then  being  filled  with  sulfur 
fumes  for  several  minutes.  This  is  said  to  com- 
pletely destroy  the  pests  and  in  no  way  to  injure 
the  fowls. 

When  poultry  houses  become  infested  with  lice 
a  complete  cleansing  of  the  building  is  required. 
Movable  fixtures  should  be  taken  'out  and  the 
walls  thoroughly  washed  and  cleansed.  The  in- 
terior should  be  freshly  whitewashed  or  sprayed 
with  chlorides  or  other  efficient  insecticides. 
Kerosene  emulsion  is  effective  if  the  spraying  is 
thoroughly  done.  Some  modern  spraying  ma- 
chines are  so  constructed  that  kerosene  oil  may 
be  mixed  with  water  in  a  fine  spray  to  answer 
every  purpose.  This  method  is  easier  than  to 
apply  the  kerosene  in  the  form  of  a  soap  emul- 
sion. 


312  Farm  Poultry 

MITES 

These  parasites  are  frequently  called  "lice," 
although  they  are  entirely  different  from  the  ani- 
mals described  under  that  name.  Mites  are 
usually  smaller  than  lice.  The  red  poultry  mite 
is  one  of  the  greatest  pests.  It  is  frequently 
called  the  "summer  louse"  and  is  found  in  great 
numbers  in  the  poultry  house  and  other  places 
frequented  by  fowls  in  the  summer  time.  It 
is  frequently  seen  about  cracks  and  crevices, 
underneath  and  about  the  perches,  and  also  in 
the  nests,  particularly  those  of  sitting  hens.  It 
multiplies  rapidly,  so  that  if  a  few  have  been 
introduced  into  a  poultry  house,  the  place  may 
become  overrun  within  a  short  time. 

The  habit  of  these  pests  is  very  different  from 
that  of  lice.  The  mites  breed  in  cracks  and 
chinks  about  the  perches  and  nests  and  go  on 
the  body  of  the  fowls  at  night  to  feed.  They 
pierce  the  skin  and  fill  themselves  with  blood. 
Though  they  are  small,  each  insect  can  remove 
an  appreciable  amount  of  blood.  The  fowl  not 
only  suffers  from  the  loss  of  blood  but  is  dis- 
turbed during  the  night  when  it  should  have  per- 
fect rest  and  be  free  from  annoyance.  Sitting 
hens  are  so  much  annoyed  that  they  are  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  nests  in  order  to  relieve 
themselves  of  the  parasites.  If  the  nests  and 


Miles— Gapes  313 

perches,  and  the  cracks  and  crevices  about  them, 
are  kept  free  from  the  pests  the  fowls  will  not 
be  disturbed.  Free  use  of  kerosene  oil  or  kero- 
sene emulsion  about  the  nests  and  perches  will 
usually  suffice.  Some  manufacturers  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  habit  of  these  pests  and  con- 
struct perches  which  will  not  permit  them  to 
pass  from  the  places  of  concealment  about  the 
poultry  house  to  the  body  of  the  fowl,  each  perch 
being  supported  by  means  of  slender  iron  sup- 
ports, the  bases  of  which  are  placed  in  small 
cups  filled  with  oil. 

A  little  care  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of 
the  poultry  attendant  to  keep  the  poultry  house 
entirely  free  from  mites  will  protect  the  fowls 
from  these  pests. 

GAPES 

Gapes  sometimes  destroys  large  numbers  of 
small  chickens;  in  fact,  on  some  farms  during 
certain  seasons  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  rear 
broods  of  young  chickens  that  are  entirely  free 
from  it,  particularly  if  the  young  chickens  are 
kept  under  the  ordinary  conditions.  It  is  well 
known  that  gapes  is  caused  by  a  small  worm 
known  as  Syngamws  trachealis.  This  worm  is  of 
a  reddish  color  and  varies  in  length  from  three- 
eighths  to  three -fourths  of  an  inch.  The  two  sexes 
are  united,  which  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  name 


314  '  Farm  Poultry 

of  "branched  worm."  On  account  of  its  color  it  is 
also  sometimes  known  as  the  "red  worm."  It  is 
stated  that  the  male  is  always  attached  to  the 
female,  the  former  being  the  smaller  of  the  two. 
These  worms  are  found  in  the  windpipe  or  trachea 
of  the  chickens,  where  they  are  attached  to  the 
membranous  lining  of  this  air -passage.  They 
are  nourished  by  sucking  the  blood  of  the  fowl 
and  cause  considerable  irritation  and  inflamma- 
tion, particularly  if  the  chickens  are  weak.  The 
stronger  and  more  robust  undoubtedly  are  con- 
siderably inconvenienced,  but  the  attacks  are  not 
severe  enough  to  prevent  them  from  making 
a  fairly  good  growth.  It  is  stated,  on  good 
authority,  that  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty  of 
these  worms  have  been  found  in  a  single  chicken. 

Dr.  H.  D.  Walker,  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  states  that 
the  earthworm  is  the  natural  host  of  this  pest. 
Chickens,  robins  and  other  birds  have  become 
infested  with  the  gape  worm  by  feeding  them 
infested  earthworms.  Comparatively  few  gape 
worms  are  sufficient  to  destroy  the  life  of  weak 
young  chickens.  Many  more,  however,  would 
not  necessarily  destroy  a  vigorous  bird,  either 
young  or  adult.  These  worms  are  frequently  dis- 
lodged by  coughing  or  sneezing.  When  they  are 
thrown  out  in  this  manner  other  fowls  may  eat 
them  and  in  turn  become  infected. 

Remedies. — Keep  little  chickens  in  a  dry  place 


Gape -worm  315 

and  away  from  infected  ground.  As  the  weak 
fowls  are  likely  to  succumb  first,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  brood  be  kept  in  as 
healthy  and  vigorous  condition  as  possible. 

It  is  recommended  to  dislodge  the  worms  by 
introducing  into  the  trachea  a  horsehair,  doubled 
so  as  to  form  a  loop,  then  give  it  several  turns, 
and  slowly  withdraw  it.  As  the  loop  is  with- 
drawn the  dislodged  worms  may  be  removed 
or  coughed  up  by  the  fowl.  This  operation  re- 
peated several  times  will  frequently  give  relief 
to  aggravated  cases.  Other  good  authorities 
recommend  the  introduction  of  a  feather  which 
has  been  moistened  with  turpentine.  The  tur- 
pentine will  cause  the  dislodgment  of  the  worms 
and  the  chickens  will  sneeze  or  cough  them  up. 

Some  practical  poultry-keepers  recommend 
placing  an  infested  brood  in  a  barrel  or  com- 
paratively tight  box  and  dusting  in  the  com- 
partment a  considerable  quantity  of  fine  air- 
slaked  lime.  The  infested  chickens  will  be  re- 
quired to  breathe  the  air  heavily  laden  with  this 
fine  lime,  which  will  cause  the  dislodgment  of 
many  of  the  worms.  While  this  treatment  is 
rather  severe  and  may  cause  the  death  of  some 
of  the  weakest  of  the  birds,  yet  it  will  some- 
times prove  efficacious  in  saving  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  a  brood  which  otherwise  might  suc- 
cumb. 


316  Farm  Poultry 

Preventive  measures  are  more  satisfactory  than 
remedial  ones.  Keep  the  chickens  in  a  dry  place 
and  in  as  healthy  and  vigorous  a  condition  as 
possible,  and  away  from  sources  of  contamina- 
tion. 

KOUP 

Roup  is  a  common  disease  among  farm  poul- 
try and  one  that  often  causes  serious  loss.  When 
roup  is  permitted  to  remain  in  a  flock  unchecked, 
the  loss  from  death  alone  may  be  considerable, 
and  the  loss  occasioned  by  many  sick  birds  which 
are  for  a  long  time  thoroughly  incapacitated  for 
usefulness  may  be  quite  as  great.  Roup  is  con- 
sidered contagious  by  the  most  eminent  authori- 
ties. It  passes  from  one  fowl  to  another  of  the 
same  flock,  and  may  be  carried  from  one  flock 
to  another  by  the  introduction  of  infected  birds. 
It  has  been  considered  by  some  as  being  pro- 
duced by  unfavorable  conditions.  This  is  not 
strictly  true.  Undoubtedly  unsanitary  conditions 
are  potent  factors  in  the  development  of  the  dis- 
ease when  the  fowls  are  once  exposed.  Tender 
fowls,  or  those  requiring  particularly  good  care, 
are  more  susceptible  to  roup  than  are  the  more 
healthy  or  robust.  The  introduction  of  the  spe- 
cific organism  of  the  disease  is  necessary  for  its 
development;  hence  it  is  a  communicable  disease. 

Symptoms. — Among   the   first  symptoms   that 


Eoup  317 

will  be  noticed  is  a  thin,  watery  discharge  from 
the  nostrils,  followed  by  obstructed  breathing.  A 
few  cases  of  harsh  breathing  that  had  not  pre- 
viously been  manifest  should  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion.  These  cases  may  be  readily  detected 
by  passing  through  the  poultry  house  in  the 
evening  when  all  is  quiet.  In  the  later  stages  of 
the  disease  the  watery  discharge  at  the  nostrils 
becomes  thicker  and  more  sticky,  which  causes 
frequent  sneezing  in  order  to  prevent  the  air- 
passages  from  becoming  completely  closed. 

Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon  says*  that  the  inflammation 
extends,  as  the  disease  advances,  from  the  mem- 
brane of  the  nasal  cavities  to  those  of  other 
connecting  passages.  As  the  orbital  space  which 
surrounds  the  eye  connects  with  the  nasal  pas- 
sage, this  is  frequently  involved.  The  mem- 
brane of  the  orbital  cavity  becomes  inflamed  and 
swollen,  and  in  severe  cases  apparently  forces 
the  eye  from  its  socket.  The  sides  of  the  head 
become  unduly  swollen  and  the  fowl  frequently 
becomes  entirely  blind,  the  birds  presenting  a 
most  unsightly  appearance.  Breathing  is  per- 
formed with  difficulty,  and  a  thick  discharge,  at 
this  time,  may  escape  from  the  nostrils.  Death 
frequently  follows  after  these  serious  symptoms. 

Treatment. —  Prevent  healthy  birds  from  be- 
coming contaminated  by  removing  them  to  clean 

*"The  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  pp.  32-34. 


318  Farm  Poultry 

quarters,  or  by  the  removal  of  the  sick  birds  and 
thoroughly  cleaning  and  disinfecting  the  poultry 
house.  Give  wholesome  and  easily  digested  food 
and  keep  the  fowls  in  as  healthy  and  vigorous 
condition  as  possible.  Antiseptic  solutions  are 
to  be  injected  into  the  nostrils  and  on  the  roof 
of  the  mouth.  If  large  swellings  have  appeared 
which  are  filled  with'  cheesy  pus,  this  should  be 
removed  and  these  cavities  be  injected  with  an- 
tiseptics. The  following  solutions  are  recom- 
mended : 

1.  Two  per  cent  solution  of  creoline. 

2.  Two  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

3.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  and  water,  equal  parts. 

4.  One  grain  of  permanganate  of  potash  to  an 

ounce  of  water. 

5.  Kerosene  oil  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  lard 

or  olive  oil.  Some  poultrymen  recommend 
the  use  of  pure  kerosene  oil,  a  drop  in 
each  nostril  of  the  infected  fowl. 

When  diphtheritic  roup  develops,  white  patches 
are  frequently  seen  on  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
and  on  the  connecting  air -passages.  Later  these 
patches  become  more  or  less  yellow.  Dr.  Sal- 
mon also  says*  that  the  sick  birds  should  be 
placed  in  clean,  warm,  well -ventilated  quarters, 
where  they  can  be  readily  examined  and  where 
they  will  not  be  exposed  to  drafts  of  air.  In 

*«Tbe  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  pp.  224,  225. 


Treatment  for  Roup  319 

other  words,  these  quarters  should  be  most  favor- 
able for  invalids.  He  recommends  the  applica- 
tion, to  the  diphtheritic  spots  in  the  mouth  and 
eyes,  of  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in 
water  or  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  creoline,  and  that 
some  of  the  same  should  be  injected  in  small 
quantities  into  the  nostrils.  The  removal  of  this 
diphtheritic  membrane  is  recommended  if  it  can 
be  accomplished  without  bleeding.  Tincture  of 
iodine  has  been  applied  to  the  diseased  parts 
successfully.  Boric  acid,  15  grains  to  an  ounce 
of  water,  may  be  applied  to  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  nostrils  and  eyes.  This  application  is 
often  made  with  benefit,  and  is  considered  safe. 
Dr.  Salmon  further  recommends  the  use  of  chlo- 
rate of  potassium  and  salicylic  acid  in  the  fol- 
lowing proportions:  2  grains  of  salicylic  acid  and 
35  grains  of  chlorate  in  one  ounce  of  water,  to 
which  may  be  added  1  ounce  of  glycerine.  This 
should  be  applied  two  or  three  times  a  day  on 
the  diphtheritic  spots  and  may  be  given  internally 
in  doses  of  about  a  teaspoonful  to  adult  fowls. 

"  Disinfect  thoroughly  by  sprinkling  the  walls  of 
the  building  and  the  ground  frequented  by  the 
diseased  fowls  with  carbolic  acid  water  (1% 
ounces  of  carbolic  acid  to  a  quart  of  water). 
Wash  feeding  troughs,  water  dishes,  etc.,  with 
the  same  solution.  Cover  the  earth  with  straw 
or  boards  and  keep  the  fowls  perfectly  dry. 


320  Farm  Poultry 

"Mix  with  the  soft  food  several  hours  before 
feeding,  as  a  curative  and  a  preventive,  a  pinch 
of  the  following  mixture  for  each  fowl: 

Hyposulfite  of  soda 50  grams 

Salicylate  of  soda 50      ' ' 

Pulverized  yellow  gentian 200       ' ' 

Pulverized  ginger 200       " 

Pulverized  sulfate  of  iron 100       ' ' 

"Give  sulfate  of  iron  in  the  drinking  water, 
1%  grams  to  a  quart  of  water."* 

CHOLERA 

Dr.  Salmon  states  t  that  fowl  cholera  attacks 
chickens,  geese,  ducks,  turkeys,  pigeons,  and  in 
fact  all  varieties  of  domesticated  fowls.  The 
infection  often  takes  place  through  drinking 
water,  or  partaking  of  food  that  is  contaminated 
by  the  excrement  of  sick  birds.  It  is  possible 
for  fowls  to  be  infected  through  wounds  or  by 
means  of  the  germs  which  may  be  inhaled  in  the 
form  of  dust.  He  further  states  that  the  disease 
is  generally  brought  in  by  the  introduction  of  in- 
fected birds  or  with  eggs  that  have  been  pur- 
chased for  hatching.  This  disease  may  be  com- 
municated to  mice  and  rabbits  by  inoculation. 

Symptoms.— "The  symptoms  of  American  fowl 
cholera  were  first  described  by  Dr.  Salmon  in 

*"  Journal  D'Agriculture  Pratique,"  1895,  Tome  2,  pp.  913,  914. 
t«The  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  pp.  233,  234. 


Cholera  321 

1880.  They  include  the  voiding  of  feces,  of 
which  the  part  that  is  normally  white  is  yel- 
low. The  white  part  of  the  feces  is  excreted  by 
the  kidneys,  and  the  yellow  discoloration  of  this 
excrement  is  usually  the  first  indication  of  dis- 
ease. Shortly  thereafter  the  droppings  become 
thin  and  fluid,  and  they  are  voided  frequently 
and  enveloped  by  a  layer  of  thin  mucus.  The 
fowl  becomes  depressed;  it  stands  still  or  assumes 
a  sitting  posture,  goes  into  a  sunny,  warm  place, 
if  possible.  The  plumage  becomes  ruffled,  the 
head  is  drawn  down,  the  comb  becomes  pale 
and  bloodless,  and  the  appetite  is  depressed  or 
lost.  The  depression  and  torpidity  of  the  fowl 
increase  until  it  seems  to  become  unconscious. 
.  .  .  The  bird  then  becomes  thin  and  weak, 
and  sometimes  passes  into  a  stupor  and  dies. 
In  other  cases,  it  may  have  convulsions  prior  to 
death."* 

Treatment.  —  "The  treatment  of  individual 
fowls  afflicted  with  such  a  highly  contagious  dis- 
ease as  true  fowl  cholera  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, because,  in  the  first  place,  so  long  as 
the  infected  fowl  remains  around  there  is  danger 
that  its  poisonous  products  may  be  carried  to 
healthy  birds;  secondly,  there  is  little  chance  of 
curing  it  and  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  try. 

*"  Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Poultry,"  Pearson  &  Warren,  Bulletin 
No.  17,  Pa.  State  Dept.  Agr. 

U 


322  Farm  Poultry 

"The  important  point  in  this  connection  is  the 
prevention  of  disease,  and  fowl  cholera  can  usu- 
ally be  stopped  by  preventing  the  introduction 
of  fowls  suffering  from  it,  or  that  come  from 
infected  localities.  If  the  disease  is  once  intro- 
duced the  most  stringent  measures  should  be 
enforced  as  regards  cleanliness,  disinfection,  and 
the  total  destruction  of  the  carcasses  of  the  dead 
birds.  The  birds  that  are  still  healthy  should  be 
removed  from  the  flock  and  placed  in  a  whole- 
some locality.  The  droppings  from  the  diseased 
fowls  should  be  burned  or  thoroughly  disinfected 
by  mixing  with  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  sul- 
furic  acid  or  with  a  quantity  of  lime  equal  in 
amount  to  the  manure.  The  building  should  be 
disinfected  by  cleaning  it  very  thoroughly,  flush- 
ing the  floor  with  a  saturated  solution  of  cop- 
peras and  spraying  the  interior  with  a  5  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  followed  by  whitewash- 
ing. If  the  pens  and  runs  can  be  abandoned 
for  a  year  and  grass  or  crops  grown  in  them, 
this  is  the  best  plan,  but  if  it  is  not  possible  to 
do  this,  they  should  be  cleaned  with  as  great 
thoroughness  as  possible  and  slaked  lime  scat- 
tered over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which  should 
be  plowed. 

"It  should  be  remembered  that  the  germs  of 
fowl  cholera  may  be  carried  in  the  feathers,  so 
that  a  perfectly  healthy  fowl,  coming  from  a 


Scaly  Legs  323 

diseased  flock,  may  carry  the  disease  to  another 
flock  a  long  distance  away.  These  germs  may 
also  be  carried  on  the  shoes  and  clothing  of  per- 
sons ;  by  vermin,  as  rats  or  mice,  or  they  may 
become  attached  to  light  objects,  such  as  leaves, 
and  be  carried  long  distances  by  the  wind.  If 
the  disease  exists  among  the  fowls  along  the 
watercourse,  those  lower  down  the  stream  may 
receive  the  germs  with  their  water  supply.  So, 
whenever  this  disease  prevails  in  a  locality,  one 
cannot  guard  his  fowls  too  carefully."  * 


SCALY   LEGS 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  parasite  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  the  mange  of  the  cat  and  dog. 
The  disease  is  considered  to  be  contagious,  though 
it  does  not  spread  rapidly.  It  is  most  frequently 
noticed  in  old  fowls  of  the  heavy  breeds,  as  of 
the  Asiatic  types.  Ducks  and  geese  are  not 
affected  with  this  trouble. 

Treatment. — Soak  with  oil.  Sweet  oil  or  lard 
oil  mixed  with  kerosene  is  recommended.  Kero- 
sene alone  is  sometimes  applied  with  most  excel- 
lent results.  However,  it  is  a  somewhat  harsher 
treatment  than  is  necessary.  Those  who  keep  on 
hand  a  stock  solution  of  kerosene  emulsion  may 

# "Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Poultry,"  Bulletin  No.  17,  Pa.  State 
Dept.  Agr. 


324  Farm  Poultry 

find  this  a  most  excellent  remedy  for  scaly  legs. 
It  should  be  applied  thoroughly.  A  few  appli- 
cations are  usually  sufficient.  If  thorough  work 
is  to  be  accomplished  the  poultry  houses  should 
be  disinfected. 

FKEEZING 

Valuable  fowls  sometimes  die  from  frosted 
combs  and  wattles.  Remedial  measures  are  not 
so  satisfactory  as  preventive  ones.  The  most 
that  can  be  done  is  to  give  good  nursing.  If 
the  fowls  are  discovered  to  be  frosted  before  the 
organs  affected  have  thawed  out,  the  frost  should 
be  removed  by  applications  of  cold  water  or  snow. 
The  gradual  thawing  of  the  frozen  parts  may 
sometimes  save  them.  After  thawing  has  taken 
place,  the  parts  should  be  smeared  with  grease, 
vaseline  or  cosmoline.  It  is  thought  to  be  advan- 
tageous to  keep  the  fowls  in  a  fairly  cool  room. 

BUMBLE   FOOT 

Bumble  foot  is  caused  by  bruises  on  the  bottom 
of  the  feet.  These  bruises  are  sometimes  fol- 
lowed by  swellings  which  suppurate  and  become 
greatly  enlarged  if  they  are  not  lanced  and  the 
pus  permitted  to  escape.  Causes  which  produce 
bruises  should  be  removed.  Heavy  fowls  that 
are  required  to  fly  from  rather  high  perches  and 


Egg-  and  Feather -eating  325 

to  alight  on  hard  and  uneven  surfaces  are  liable 
to  suffer  from  bumble  foot.  In  serious  cases  it 
is  advisable  to  inclose  the  feet  in  little  bags  filled 
with  poultice  in  order  to  induce  free  suppuration. 
If  the  pus  is  not  permitted  to  escape,  it  becomes 
cheesy  and  finally  dries  sufficiently  to  form  a  hard 
mass,  which  produces  a  permanent  enlargement. 

EGG- EATING 

This  habit  sometimes  becomes  a  most  serious 
vice  in  the  poultry  yard.  It  spreads  from  fowl 
to  fowl.  Fowls  become  very  fond  of  eggs  when 
they  once  learn  to  eat  them.  The  habit  usually 
starts  through  accident,  either  by  eggs  being 
broken  or  frozen.  If  eggs  are  not  permitted 
to  freeze  in  the  poultry  house,  and  care  is  taken 
to  prevent  their  being  broken,  the  habit  is  not 
likely  to  be  contracted.  As  soon  as  it  is  dis- 
covered that  a  fowl  has  the  habit  well  formed 
this  fowl  should  be  removed  from  the  others  be- 
fore the  habit  is  spread.  Unless  the  bird  is  a 
specially  valuable  one,  it  is  often  advisable  to 
inflict  the  death  penalty. 

FEATHER  -  EATING 

Feather -eating,  like  egg-eating,  may  become  a 
most  objectionable  habit.  Fowls  of  active  breeds 


326  Farm  Poultry 

that  are  closely  confined  are  more  likely  to  learn 
feather -eating  or  feather -pulling  than  those  that 
are  given  wide  range  and  plenty  of  wholesome 
food.  Close  confinement  with  improper  ration 
will  often  lead  to  this  vice.  When  once  the  habit 
is  well  formed  it  may  become  most  troublesome. 
Fowls  pluck  the  feathers  from  each  other.  Those 
on  the  back  at  the  root  of  the  tail  or  high  up 
on  the  breast  are  likely  to  be  plucked  first.  If 
but  few  fowls  have  learned  the  habit,  it  is  some- 
times recommended  to  file  the  beak  so  that  the 
front  and  sides  will  not  close  tightly.  This  will 
prevent  the  bird  from  pulling  feathers  but  will 
permit  it  to  eat  ordinary  food  readily.  When  sev- 
eral fowls  of  a  flock  have  but  slightly  contracted 
the  habit,  a  wide  range  with  change  of  diet,  in- 
cluding plenty  of  animal  food,  will  usually  suffice 
t3  correct  the  evil.  Above  all,  permit  the  fowls 
tD  take  plenty  of  exercise. 

DIAKKHCEA 

Diarrhoea  is  caused  by  some  irritation  of  the 
digestive  system.  Depression  and  loss  of  appe- 
tite frequently  precede  it.  If  the  diarrhcea  is 
at  all  serious  the  excrement  may  be  mixed  with 
mucus  or  blood.  Fowls  suffering  from  this 
disease  should  be  placed  in  comfortable  quarters 
and  given  clean,  wholesome  food  that  is  easily 


Diarrhoea  327 

digested.  Foods  of  gelatinous  nature,  like  cooked 
linseed  meal,  are  specially  recommended.  Some 
poultrymen  place  a  high  value  on  charcoal  which 
has  been  broken  into  small  pieces,  about  the  size 
of  a  kernel  of  corn.  This  is  placed  before  them 
and  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  fowls  to  eat 
what  is  needed.  A  few  drops  of  laudanum  is 
recommended  in  severe  cases. 

SALT    POISONING 

Salt  in  small  doses,  as  before  stated,  is  very 
beneficial,  but  large  quantities  may  produce  death. 
It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  one-half  an 
ounce  to  one  ounce  is  fatal  to  a  chicken.  Salt 
fish  and  some  salt  meats,  and  the  brine  in  which 
meats  have  been  preserved,  are  specially  dan- 
gerous. 

Whites  of  eggs  and  the  liquor  of  boiled  flax- 
seed  are  recommended  as  remedies.  Laudanum 
and  finely  powdered  chalk  in  water,  together  or 
singly,  may  sometimes  be  given  with  good  effect. 
Laudanum  is  especially  valuable  when  consider- 
able pain  is  manifest. 

EATS 

Eats  sometimes  become  very  troublesome  in 
poultry  houses,  and  the  question  of  their  extermi- 


328  'Farm  Poultry 

nation  is  often  a  most  perplexing  one.  Precau- 
tionary measures  are  usually  the  most  satisfactory. 
If  the  buildings  are  so  constructed  that  rats  can- 
not burrow  under  them,  the  battle  is  largely  won. 
If,  however,  the  rats  find  suitable  homes  about 
poultry  houses,  and  cannot  be  driven  out  by 
ordinary  methods,  much  annoyance  and  often 
severe  loss  may  result.  When  traps  and  cats 
will  not  suffice,  more  extreme  measures  must  be 
adopted.  Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  remove 
the  fowls  temporarily  and  hunt  the  rats  by 
means  of  ferrets.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  resort  to  poisoning.  In  a  gen- 
eral way  it  may  be  stated  that  animals  should 
not  be  poisoned  except  in  extreme  cases.  The 
author  has  on  several  occasions  found  it  neces- 
sary to  use  poison  to  rid  the  premises  of  these 
pests.  A  little  strychnine  was  placed  in  each  of 
many  small  pieces  of  cheese.  These  little  pieces 
were  dropped  into  the  rat  holes  and  other 
places  frequented  by  the  vermin,  care  being 
taken  in  every  case  to  cover  the  holes  with 
boards  so  that  the  fowls  would  be  prevented 
from  gaining  access  to  the  poison.  While  the 
fowls  were  not  killed  or  in  any  way  injured  by 
this  method  of  killing  rats,  the  practice  is  always 
accompanied  with  more  or  less  danger,  particu- 
larly as  it  is  necessary  to  place  the  poison  near 
places  frequented  by  the  fowls. 


Hawks,   Crows,  Me.  329 

HAWKS,    CHOWS,    ETC. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  protect  the  yards 
and  runs  from  the  depredations  of  these  chicken 
thieves.  Crows  sometimes  become  so  bold  that 
they  are  serious  pests  in  yards  where  little 
chickens  are  given  their  liberty.  Covering  the 
yard  with  wire  netting  is  a  perfect  protection. 
If  there  are  bushes  in  the  yard,  under  which 
the  fowls  may  hide,  the  depredations  will  be 
much  lessened. 


APPENDIX 


SOME   IMPORTANT   POULTRY  PUBLICATIONS 

BOOKS 

AMERICAN  STANDARD  OF  PERFECTION.— American  Poultry  Associa- 
tion. Published  by  the  Association. 

AMERICAN  STANDARD  POULTRY  BOOK.— John  Taggart.  Published 
by  Wm.  L.  Allison,  New  York. 

BOOK  OF  POULTRY.— L.  Wright.  Published  by  Cassell  &  Co., 
London. 

BURNHAM'S  NEW  POULTRY  BOOK.— Geo.  P.  Burnham.  Published 
by  Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston. 

DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  -Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon.  Published  by  Geo. 
E.  Howard  &  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

DOMESTIC  POULTRY  BOOK.— T.  B.  Miner.  Published  by  American 
News  Company,  New  York. 

ILLUSTRATED  BOOK  OF  DOMESTIC  POULTRY. — Martin  Doyle.  Pub- 
lished by  Porter  &  Coats,  Philadelphia. 

LLOYD'S  MODERN  POULTRY  BOOK.— W.  B.  Lloyd.  Published  by 
Howard  &  Wilson  Publishing  Company,  Chicago. 

NEW  EGG  FARM.— H.  H.  Stoddard.  Published  by  Orange  Judd 
Company,  New  York. 

PEOPLE'S  PRACTICAL  POULTRY  BOOK. — W.  M.  Lewis.  Published 
by  Excelsior  Publishing  House,  New  York. 

PIGEONS,  THEIR  STRUCTURE,  VARIETIES,  HABITS  AND  MANAGE- 
MENT.— Wm.  B.  Tegetmeier.  Published  by  Boutledge  &  Sons, 
London. 

POCKET  MONEY  POULTRY. — Myra  V.  Norys.  Published  by  Geo. 
E.  Howard  &  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(331) 


332  Appendix 

POULTRY   BOOK.— Wm.  B.  Tegetmeier.     Published  by  Routledge 

&  Sons,  London. 
POULTRY  CULTURE.— I.  K.  Felch.     Published  by  Donohue,  Hen- 

neberry  &  Co.,  Chicago. 
PRACTICAL  POULTRY  KEEPER.— L.  Wright.     Published  by  Orange 

Judd  Company,  New  York. 
PROFITABLE  POULTRY  KEEPING. — Stephen   Beale.     Published   by 

Eoutledge  &  Sons,  London. 
PROFITS   IN   POULTRY. —  Orange   Judd   Company.     Published   by 

Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 
SHEEP,  SWINE  AND   POULTRY.— Robert  Jennings.     Published   by 

Keystone  Publishing  Company,  Philadelphia. 
TURKEYS,  AND  How  TO  GROW  THEM.— Herbert  Myrick.     Published 

by  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York. 


PAMPHLETS    AND    BULLETINS 

ANDALUSIAN  FOWLS.— L.  C.  Verrey.  Published  by  The  Fanciers' 
Gazette,  London. 

ANIMAL  FOOD  FOR  POULTRY. — Bulletin  No.  171,  New  York  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  Published  by  the  New  York 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

BARRED  AND  WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCKS. — Joseph  Wallace.  Pub- 
lished by  Ferris  Publishing  Company,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

CAPONS  AND  CAPONIZINQ. — Bulletin  No.  31,  Oregon  Agricultural 
Experiment-  Station.  Published  by  the  Oregon  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Corvallis,  Ore. 

CAPONS  AND  CAPONIZING. — Bulletin  No.  20,  Rhode  Island  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  Published  by  the  Rhode  Island 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kingston,  R.  I. 

CAPONS  FOR  PROFIT.— T.  Greiner.  Published  by  the  Author,  La 
Salle,  N.  Y. 

DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  POULTRY. — Pearson  and  Warren,  Bul- 
letin No.  17.  Published  by  Pennsylvania  State  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Hairisburg,  Pa. 

DUCK  CULTURE.— James  Rankin.  Published  by  the  Author, 
South  Easton,  Mass. 


Appendix  333 

DUCKS  AND  GEESE.— G.  E.  Howard,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. 
Published  by  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

ECONOMY  OF  USING  ANIMAL  FOOD  IN  POULTRY  FEEDING.— Bulletin 
No.  149.  Published  by  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  GEESE. — Eighth  Annual  Report.  Published 
by  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kings- 
ton, R.  I. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  TURKEYS. — Sixth  Annual  Report.  Published 
by  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kings- 
ton, R.  I. 

FATTENING  FOWLS.— Ernest  Cobb.  Published  by  The  Feathered 
World,  London. 

FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  LAYING  HENS. —  Bulletin  No.  90. 
Published  by  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Geneva,  N.  Y. 

FOWLS:  CARE  AND  FEEDING. — G.  C.  Watson,  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  41.  Published  by  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Washington,  D.  C. 

GAPEWORMS  OF  FOWLS.— H.  D.  Walker.  Published  by  the  Author, 
Newburg,  N.  Y. 

GOOSE  BREEDING.— Tenth  Annual  Report.  Published  by  Rhode 
Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kingston,  R.  I. 

HAMBURGS  UP  TO  DATE.  —  Charles  Holt.  Published  by  The 
Feathered  World,  London. 

INCUBATION  AND  ITS  NATURAL  LAWS. — C.  A.  Cyphers.  Published 
by  the  Author,  Way  land,  N.  Y. 

INDIAN  GAME  FOWL.— G.  T.  Whitefield.  Published  by  The  Fan- 
ciers' Gazette,  London. 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  TURKEYS. —  Seventh  Annual  Report. 
Published  by  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Kingston,  R.  I. 

POULTRY  KEEPING  FOR  PROFIT. —  Bulletin  No.  130.  Published 
by  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  West 
Raleigh,  N.  C. 

PARASITES  OF  POULTRY.— Bulletin  No.  131.  Published  by  North 
Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  West  Raleigh,  N.  C. 


334  Appendix 

STANDARD  VARIETIES  OF  CHICKENS.— G.  E.  Howard,  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  64.  Published  by  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

TURKEYS.— Bulletin  No.  25.  Published  by  Rhode  Island  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  Kingston,  R.  I. 

TAPEWORMS  OF  POULTRY.— Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon,  Bulletin  No.  12. 
Published  by  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

WYANDOTTES. — Joseph  Wallace.  Published  by  Ferris  Publishing 
Company,  Albany,  N.  Y. 


INDEX 


African  geese,  255. 

Air  space  necessary,  95. 

Alien  blood,  introduction  of,  23. 

Amount  of  land  required,  6. 

Andalusians.  as  farm  fowls,  34;  descrip- 
tion of,  34. 

Animal  and  vegetable  nitrogen  com- 
pared, 169. 

Animal  and  vegetable  food  for  chickens, 
212. 

Animal  and  vegetable  food  for  young 
clucks,  248. 

Animal  meal,  169;  how  fed,  179. 

Arrangement  of  houses,  87. 

Artificial  incubation,  189. 

Asiatics,  44. 

Automatic  drinking  fountains,  218. 

Aylesbury  ducks,  242. 

Bantams,  description  of.  81;  varieties 
of,  81. 

Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  59 ;  laying 
qualities  of,  60;  useful  qualities  of,  59. 

Beets,  166. 

Best  products  most   remunerative,  10. 

Black  Cayuga  ducks,  244. 

Black  turkeys,  269. 

Boiled  eggs  for  little  chickens,  213. 

Brahmas,  45;  description  of,  46;  varie- 
ties of,  45. 

Breed  useful  fowls,  155. 

Breeding  and  improvement,  131. 

Breeds  classified  as  to  utility,  12  ;  egg, 
13  ;  fancy,  14,  74  ;  for  broilers,  235  ; 
for  capons,  227  ;  formed  by  crossing, 
149 ;  general  purpose,  14  ;  meat,  14, 
39;  of  geese,  252. 


Broiler,  description  of,  232;  rearers  as 
specialists,  232;  rearing  and  egg  pro- 
duction, 236. 

Broilers,  food  for,  235;  profits  from 
rearing,  234;  size  of,  233;  skill  re- 
quired in  producing,  232;  time  to  sell, 
233. 

Bronze  turkeys,  267. 

Brooder  chicks,  attack  by  diarrhoea, 
221 ;  diseased  livers  in,  221. 

Brooder  houses,  199. 

Brooders,  198;  care  of,  218;  essentials 
of,  201  ;  home-made,  205  :  kinds  of, 
198;  must  be  dry,  204;  outdoor,  202. 

Brown  and  White  Leghorns  compared, 
28. 

Buckwheat,  164. 

Buildings,  location  of,  82. 

Buff  Cochins,  50. 

Buff  Plymouth  Rocks,  61. 

Buff  turkeys,  269. 

Buildings,  size  of,  94. 

Bumble  foot,  causes  of,  324. 

Business  of  rearing  fowls,  1. 

Cabbage,  167. 

Call  ducks,  245. 

Canned  meat  foods,  170. 

Capital  required,  3. 

Capon-rearing,  222;  profits  of,  223. 

Caponizing,  good  light  necessary,  229; 
instruments  for,  225;  operation  'of, 
226;  preparing  fowls  for,  228,  231;  size 
of  fowls  for,  228;  time  for,  230;  use  of 
reflectors  in,  230. 

Capons,  breeds  for,  227;  description  of, 
224;  preparing  for  market,  231. 


(335) 


336 


Index 


Care  of  incubators,  196. 

Care  of  young  turkeys,  272. 

Causes  of  bumble  foot,  324;  gapes,  313; 
roup,  316;  scaly  legs,  323;  variation, 
142. 

Cement  floors,  construction  of,  106. 

Characteristics  of  Cochins,  49;  egg 
breeds,  15. 

Chickens,  animal  food  for,  212;  death 
of,  from  suffocation,  221;  death  of, 
from  tuberculosis,  221;  diseases  of, 
219;  drinking  fountains  for,  217;  ex- 
ercise for,  213;  feeding,  208;  first  food 
for,  210;  food  for,  209;  frequency  of 
feeding,  211;  grit  for,  216;  ground 
grain  for,  211;  ha  d-boiled  eggs  for, 
213;  little,  must  be  kept  dry,  215; 
mineral  matter  for,  212;  number  of, 
in  the  United  States,  2. 

Chinese  geese,  256. 

Cholera,  320;  symptoms  of,  320;  treat- 
ment for,  321. 

Classes  of  game  fowls,  77. 

Classification  of  fowls  faulty,  12. 

Cleanliness  essential  in  duck-rearing, 
246. 

Clover  as  a  green  food,  166. 

Clover  hay,  as  a  poultry  food,  168;  how 
prepared,  168;  how  fed,  166. 

Cochins,  characteristics  of,  49. 

Cold  storage  for  eggs,  307. 

Color  of  yolk,  affected  by  food,  163. 

Common  fowls,  improvement  of,  153. 

Common  stock  compared  to  pure-bred 
stock,  151. 

Concrete  walls,  97. 

Construction  of  perches,  113;  cement 
floors,  106;  fences,  128;  hollow  side 
walls,  101;  houses,  90;  solid  side  walls, 
100;  ventilators,  110;  wooden  floors, 
96. 

Convenience  saves  labor,  86. 

Corn,  as  a  food  for  laying  hens,  162. 

Cramming,  arrangement  of  coops  for, 
185;  description  of,  183;  food  for, 
184. 


Cross-breeding,   147;    dangers  of,   148; 

improvements  due  to,  148. 
Crows,  protection  from,  329. 
Cubical  contents  of  house,  95.  ™ 

Danger  from  hawks  and  crows,  89. 

Danger  from  vermin,  89. 

Dangers  of  cross-breeding,  148;  forced 
feeding,  161;  in-and-in-breeding,  140; 
stampeding,  250. 

Dark  Brahmas  and  Light  Brahmas 
compared,  48. 

Description  of  Andalusians.  33;  Ban- 
tams, 81;  Brahmas,  46;  broilers,  232; 
capons,  224;  cramming,  183;  Domi- 
niques,  67;  Dorkings,  67;  Faverolles, 
52;  Frizzles,  79;  Hamburgs,  35;  Hou- 
dans,  ^70;  Javas,  66;  Langshans,  51 ; 
Minorcas,  31;  Mites,  312;  Polish,  75; 
Red  Caps,  38;  Rumpless  fowls,  80: 
Silkies,  79;  Spanish  fowls,  34;  Sul- 
tans, 79;  Water-glass,  305;  Wyan- 
dottes,  64. 

Diarrhoea,  remedies  for,  326. 

Discussion  of  incubators,  187. 

Diseased  livers  in  brooder  chicks,  221. 

Diseases  of  chickens,  219. 

Diseases  and  enemies  of  poultry,  308. 

Disinfect  fattening  fowls,  186. 

Disinfection  of  nests,  118. 

Disposition  of  egg  breeds,  16  ;  gen- 
eral-purpose fowls,  56;  meat  breeds, 
40. 

Dominiques,  description  of,  67. 

Dorkings,  description  of,  67;  useful 
qualities  of,  68. 

Dozens  of  eggs  produced  on  farms,  2. 

Drainage,  thorough,  83. 

Drinking  fountains,  119. 

Drinking  fountains,  automatic,  218;  for 
little  chickens,  217. 

Dry-picking  fowls,  286. 

Dry  soils  for  broiler  rearing,  235. 

Dry  yards  for  little  chickens,  215. 

Duck  rearing,  cleanliness  essential  to, 
246. 


Index 


Ducks,  Aylesbury,  242;  Black  Cayuga, 
244;  Call,  245;  easily  confined,  239; 
free  from  disease,  238  ;  general  dis- 
cussion of,  237;  green  food  for,  249; 
grow  rapidly,  239  ;  Muscovy,  245  ; 
natural  food  of,  245 ;  number  of  in 
the  United  States,  2 ;  Pekin,  241  ; 
ponds  or  streams  not  necessary  for, 
239;  reared  mostly  for  meat,  238; 
Rouen,  243;  varieties  of,  241;  water 
troughs  for,  249;  young,  animal  food 
for,  248;  young,  grain  food  for,  250. 

Dust  baths  necessary,  124. 

Dust  boxes,  122. 

Easiest  to  develop  one  characteristic,31. 

Easy  to  market  poultry  products,  10. 

Egg  breeds,  13;  characteristics  of,  15; 
close  feathered,  21  ;  disposition  of, 
16;  early  maturing,  17;  easily  fright- 
ened, 16;  good  foragers,  20;  inclined 
to  take  exercise,  20;  poor  sitters,  18; 
sensitive  to  cold,  21;  size  of,  15. 

Egg  eating,  117,  325. 

Egg  production  and  broiler  rearing,  236. 

Egg  production  and  fancy  points,  136. 

Egg  production  and  size  of  fowls,  135. 

Egg  production  and  vigor  of  fowl,  136. 

Egg  production,  influenced  by  males, 
139. 

Eggs,  cold  storage  for,  307;  feeding  for, 
158;  fertility  of,  137,  138;  fresh,  138; 
marketing  fresh,  300 ;  methods  of 
preserving,  303 ;  preserving,  302;  pre- 
serving in  lime  water,  307;  produced 
on  farms,  2;  selection  of  for  hatch- 
ing, 133  ;  shipping  cases  for,  301  ; 
sorting,  299. 

Embden  geese,  254. 

Enemies  and  diseases  of  poultry,  308. 

English  methods  of  killing,  292. 

Essentials  of  a  brooder,  201. 

Essentials  of  houses,  90. 

Exercise  for  little  chickens,  213 ;  im- 
portance of,  159;  required,  6. 

Exhibition  games,  77. 


Failures  due  to  inexperience,  5. 
Fancy  breeds,  14,  74;  description  of,  74. 
Fancy  points  and  egg  production,  136. 
Fattening,  181 ;  cockerels,   183  ;    foods 

for,  182. 

Fattening   fowls    require    little    exer- 
cise, 181. 
Fattening  fowls  should  be  disinfected, 

186. 

Fattening  geese,  257. 
Faulty  classification  of  fowls,  12. 
Faulty  method  of  selecting  eggs,  134. 
Faverolles,  description  of,  52. 
Feather  eating,  325. 

Feeding  for  eggs  and  for  meat,  158;  for 
meat,  181  ;  in  litter,  180 ;  little 
chickens,  208 ;  manner  of,  174  ; 
troughs,  179 ;  troughs  for  little 
chickens,  215. 

Fences,  construction  of,  128. 
Fertile  eggs,  137. 
Fertility  of  eggs,  138. 
First  food  for  little  chickens,  210. 
Flavor  of  eggs  affected  ty  food,  160. 
Flocks,  size  of,  5. 
Floor  space  necessary,  94. 
Floors,  105. 

Food  a  basis  of  improvement,  152;  af- 
fects flavor  of  eggs,  160;  deficient  in 
lime,  172;  for  broilers,  235;  for  cram- 
ming, 184;  for  fattening,  182;  for  gos- 
lings, 257;  for  little  chickens,  209;  for 
pigeons,  281;  for  young  turkeys,  271; 
green,  165;  natural,  158;  the  cause  of 
improvement,  174. 
Foods,  meat,  168;  soft,  176. 
Forced  feeding,  dangers  of,  161. 
Forced  feeding  for  eggs,  160. 
Form  of  house,  91;  roof,  103;  yard,  127. 
Forming  machine,  294;  method  of  us- 
ing, 295. 

Foundation  of  house,  96. 

Fowls,  breeding  and  improvement  of, 

131;  classification  of,  12;  dry-picking, 

286;  general-purpose,  54;  guinea,  274; 

health  of,  82;    improvement  of,  31; 


338 


Index 


killing,  285;  Mediterranean,  18;  pack- 
ing and  shipping,  289;  plumping,  288; 
preparing  for  market,  282;  require 
exercise,  6;  scalding,  287;  selection 
of,  131. 

Fresh  eggs,  138. 

Frizzles,  description  of,  79. 

Frozen  parts,  treatment  for,  324. 

Frozen  poultry,  291. 

Fruit  trees  for  yard,  129. 

Gable  roof,  103. 

Game,  classes  of,  77. 

Games,  exhibition,  77;  oriental,  78; 
pit,  77. 

Gapes,  causes  of,  313;  remedies  for,  314. 

Geese,  African,  255 ;  breeds  of,  232; 
Chinese,  256;  Embden,  254;  fattening, 
257;  general  discussion,  250;  houses 
for,  259;  incubation  of,  260;  laying 
qualities  of,  259;  number  of,  2;  suit- 
able runs  for,  251;  Toulouse,  252. 

General  discussion  of  ducks,  237;  of 
geese,  250. 

General -purpose  breeds,  14;  fowls,  54; 
are  good  foragers,  58;  are  good  sit- 
ters, 57;  disposition  of,  56;  early  ma- 
turing, 57;  endure  cold  weather,  58; 
size  of,  56;  useful  qualities  of,  55. 

Good  products  may  be  sent  long  dis- 
tances, 10. 

Goslings,  food  for,  257. 

Grain,  how  fed,  180. 

Grains,  mixture  of,  178. 

Green  food  for  young  ducks,  249. 

Green  food,  general  discussion  of,  165. 

Grit  for  little  chickens,  216;  various 
kinds  of,  170. 

Ground  grain  for  little  chicks,  211. 

Guinea  fowls,  274;  nature  of,  275; 
habits  of,  275. 

Habits  of  pea-fowls,  277. 

Hamburgs,  description  of,  35;  varieties 

of,  36. 
Hawks  and  crows,  danger  from,  89. 


Health  of  fowls,  82. 

Heat  radiated  by  windows,  107. 

Heredity,  law  of,  140. 

History  of  Leghorns,  23. 

Hollow  side  walls,  construction  of,  101; 
material  for,  102. 

Home-made  brooders,  205. 

Houdans,  description  of,  70. 

House,  cubical  content  of,  95;  form  of, 
91;  foundation  for,  96. 

Houses,  arrangement  of,  87;  construc- 
tion of,  90;  essentials  of,  90;  for  geese, 
259;  portable,  130. 

Importance  of  exercise,  159;  in-and-in- 
breeding,  145;  sunshine,  85. 

Improvement  and  breeding,  131 ;  of  com- 
mon fowls,  153;  through  selection, 
157;  of  fowls,  31;  due  to  cross-breed- 
ing, 148. 

Incubation,  artificial,  189;  of  geese,  260; 
natural,  190. 

Incubator  house,  196. 

Incubator  room,  even  temperature  de- 
sirable, 196. 

Incubator  rooms,  194;  ventilation  of, 
196. 

Incubators,  191;  care  of,  196;  discussion 
of,  187. 

In-and-in-breeding,  dangers  of,  146;  de- 
nned, 144;  importance  of,  145. 

Inexperience,  cause  of  failures,  5. 

Influence  of  male  and  female  com- 
pared, 153. 

Influence  of  males  on  egg  production, 
139. 

Indian  games,  70. 

Instruments  for  caponizing,  225. 

Introduction  of  alien  blood  in  Leg- 
horns, 23. 

Javas,  description  of,  66;  useful  quali- 
ties of,  66;  varieties  of,  66. 

Killing  fowls,  285;  English  method  of, 
292. 


Index 


339 


Kinds  of  litter,  180. 

Knowledge  of  the  business  essential,  4. 

Labor    caused   by    inconvenience,   86. 

Land,  amount  of  required,  5. 

Langshans,  description  of,  51. 

Large  eggs  preferred,  28. 

Law  of  heredity,  140. 

Law  of  variation,  141. 

Laying  qualities  of   Barred  Plymouth 

Rocks,  60;    of    geese,  259;    of    meat 

breeds,  42. 

Leghorn  eggs,  color  of,  28. 
Leghorns,  description  of,  23;  egg  pro- 
duction of,  26;    size  of,  25;  varieties 

of,  26. 
Lice,  308;  description  of,  309;  remedies 

for,  310. 
Light    Brahmas    and    Dark    Brahmas 

compared,  48. 
Lime,  necessary,  172. 
Lime  water  for  preserving  eggs,  307. 
Linseed  meal,  165;  for  moulting  hens, 

165. 

Litter,  kinds  of,  180. 
Live  poultry,  crates  for  shipping,  298; 

shipping,  297. 
Location  of  buildings,  82;  yards,  86. 

Machine,  forming,  294. 

Male  and  female,  comparative  influence 
of,  153. 

Males  and  egg  production,  139. 

Mangel-wurzels,  166. 

Manner  of  feeding,  174. 

Marketing  fresh  eggs,  300. 

Marking  packages,  291. 

Material  for  dust  baths,  123  ;  hollow 
side  walls,  102;  for  nests,  119;  for  side 
walls,  92. 

Meat  breeds,  14,  39;  are  poor  foragers, 
41;  as  lawn  fowls,  41;  as  winter  lay- 
ers, 43;  disposition  of,  40;  easily  con- 
fined, 41 ;  late  maturing,  44;  laying 
qualities  of,  42;  size  of,  39. 

Meat,  feeding  for,  181. 


Meat  foods,  168;  canned,  170. 

Mediterranean  fowls,  18,  22. 

Method  of  preserving  eggs,  303. 

Milk  for  little  chickens,  210. 

Mineral  matter  for  little  chickens,  212. 

Minorcas,  description  of,  31. 

Mites,   description   of,  312 ;    remedies 

for,  313. 

Money  invested  yields  quick  returns,  7. 
Moulting  and  egg  production,  115. 
Muscovy  ducks,  245. 

Narraganseft  turkeys,  268. 

Natural  food  of  ducks,  245;  of  fowls,  158. 

Natural  incubation,  190. 

Necessary  air  space  per  fowl,  95. 

Nest  material,  119. 

Nests,  disinfection  of,  118;  for  turkeys, 
271;  requisites  of,  115;  size  of,  118. 

Number  of  .chickens  in  the  United 
States,  2;  ducks  in  the  United  States, 
2;  geese  in  the  United  States,  2;  tur- 
keys in  the  United  States,  2. 

Oats,  as  a  food,  165  ;   produces  light - 

colored  flesh,  165. 
Operation  of  caponizing,  226. 
Oriental  Games,  78. 

Origin  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  59. 
Outdoor  brooders,  202. 

Packages,  marking,  291. 

Packing  and  shipping  fowls,  289;  poul- 
try in  ice,  290. 

Parks  and  yards,  124. 

Pate  de  foie  gras,  258. 

Pea-comb,  45. 

Pea-fowls,  276;  habits  of,  277. 

Pekin  ducks,  241. 

Pepper,  174. 

Perches,  construction  of,  113;  situation 
of,  112. 

Pigeons,  277;  food  for,  281;  profit  from 
rearing,  278. 

Pit  Games,  77. 

Plumping  fowls,  288. 


340 


Index 


Plum  trees  for  the  poultry  yard,  128. 

Plums,  varieties  of,  129. 

Poisoning  from  salt,  327. 

Poisoning  rats,  328. 

Polish,  description  of,  75  ;  fowls  not 
hardy,  76;  varieties  of,  76. 

Portable  houses,  130. 

Poultry  business  suited  to  either  sex,  8; 
cases. for  shipping,  289;  diseases  and 
enemies  of,  308;  frozen,  291;  in  apple 
orchards,  129;  packing  in  ice  for  ship- 
ment, 290;  raising  as  a  business,  1; 
shipping  alive,  297;  statistics  unre- 
liable, 2;  time  to  ship,  292;  value  of,  2. 

Preparation  of  fowls  for  caponiziug, 
228. 

Preparing  capons  for  market,  231  ; 
fowls  for  market,  282. 

Preserving  eggs,  302. 

Production  of  pate  de  foi«  gras,  258. 

Products  easy  to  market,  10;  variety 
of,  9. 

Profit  in  feeding,  175. 

Profits  from  rearing  broilers,  234;  from 
rearing  pigeons,  278;  capon  rearing, 
223. 

Protected  water  basins,  121. 

Pure  air  necessary,  195. 

Pure-bred  stock,  advantages  due  to, 
150;  compared  to  common  stock,  151. 

Quality  of  food,  160. 

Quick  returns  from  money  invested,  7. 

Raised  elevation  preferred,  84. 

Raising  poultry  as  a  business,  1. 

Rape  as  a  green  food,  168;  preparation 

of,  168. 

Rats,  poisoning,  328. 
Rearing  capons,  222;  squabs,  279. 
Red  Caps,  description  of,  38. 
Remedies  for  diarrhoea,  326;  for  gapes, 

314;  for  lice,  310;  for  mites,  313. 
Requisites  for  success,  4;    of  a  good 

nest,  115. 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  72, 


/Roof,  gable,  103;  impervious  to  wind, 

105;  shed,  104;  form  of,  103. 
Rooms  for  incubators,  194. 
Root-cutters,  167. 
Rouen  ducks,  243. 
j    Roup,  causes  of,  316;   symptoms  of,  316; 

treatment  for,  317. 
Rumpless  fowls,  described,  80. 
Runs,  suitable  for  geese,  251. 

Salt,  beneficial,  172  ;  poisoning,  327; 
poisonous,  173. 

Scalding  fowls,  287. 

Scaly  legs,  cause  of,  323;  treatment  for, 
323. 

Selecting  eggs,  133;  turkeys  for  breed- 
ing, 269. 

Selection  and  improvement,  157. 

Selection  of  an  incubator,  191;  of  fowls, 
131. 

Separate  the  sexes  in  fattening  pens, 
183. 

Shallow  pans  as   drinking  fountains, 

121. 
|    Shed  roof,  104. 

Shipping  eases  for  eggs,  301 ;  dressed 
fowls,  289;  live  poultry,  297. 

Shutters,  window,  108. 

Side  walls,  material  for,  92;  solid,  99; 
wooden,  98. 

Silkies,  description  of,  79. 

Site,  should  be  raised,  84. 

Situation  of  perches,  112;  of  windows, 
107;  of  yards,  127. 

Size  of  fowls  and  egg  production,  135; 
of  broilers,  233  ;  of  building,  94  ;  of 
egg  breeds,  15;  of  flocks,  5;  of  fowls 
for  caponizing,  228  ;  of  general -pur- 
pose fowls,  56  ;  of  Leghorns,  25  ;  of 
meat  breeds,  39  ;  of  squabs,  280  ;  of 
yards,  126. 

Skim  milk,  170. 

Slate  turkeys,  269. 

Soft -foods,  176;  most  profitable,  176. 

Solid  side  walls,  99  ;  construction  of, 
100. 


Index 


341 


Sorting  eggs,  299. 

Sour  milk  for  little  chickens,  210. 

Spanish  as  farm  fowls,  35;  description 

of,  34. 
Squabs,  rearing  of,  279  ;    size  of,  280 ; 

varieties  of  pigeons  for,  280. 
Stampeding,  dangers  of,  250. 
Statistics,  unreliable,  2. 
Stock,  pure  bred,  150. 
Sulfur,  174. 

Sultans,  description  of,  79. 
Sunshine  important,  85. 
Superior  products  create  new  demands, 

10. 

Symptoms  of  cholera,  320;  of  roup,  31G. 
Syngamus  trachealis,  313. 

Thorough  drainage  necessary,  83. 

Time  to  caponize,  230;  to  sell  broilers, 
233. 

Toulouse  geese,  252. 

Treatmentforcholera,  321. 

Treatment  for  frozen  parts,  324;  roup, 
317;  scaly  legs,  323. 

Troughs,  feeding,  179;  for  little  chick- 
ens, 215. 

Tuberculosis  in  brooder  chicks,  221. 

Turkeys,  261;  Black,  269;  Bronze,  267; 
Buff,  269;  care  of  young,  272;  food 
for  young,  271;  Narragansett,  268; 
nests  for,  271;  number  of  in  the 
United  States,  2;  selecting  for  breed- 
ing, 269;  slate,  269;  varieties  of,  267; 
White  Holland,  268;  wild,  261. 

Useful  fowls,  155. 

Useful  qualities  of  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks,  59;  Dorkings,  68;  general-pur- 
pose fowls,  55;  Indian  games,  72; 
Javas,  66;  Rhode  Island  Reds,  72. 

Utility  as  a  basis  of  classification,  12. 


Value  of  eggs  produced  on  farms  in  the 
United  States,  3;  poultry  in  the  United 
States,  2. 

Variation,  causes  of,  142;  law  of,  141. 

Varieties  of  Bantams,  81;  Brahmas, 
45;  Hamburgs,  36;  Javas,  66;  Leg- 
horns, 26;  plums  recommended,  129; 
Polish,  76;  turkeys,  267;  wild  turkeys, 
2C6;  Wyandottes,  65;  products,  9. 

Vegetable  and  animal  nitrogen  com- 
pared, 169. 

Ventilation,  109. 

Ventilators,  construction  of,  110. 

Vermin,  danger  from,  89. 

Vigor  and  egg  production,  136. 

Vigorous  fowls,  most  profitable,  175. 

Walls,  concrete,  97;  side,  material  for, 
92;  side,  wooden,  98. 

Water  basins,  121. 

Water-glass,  305. 

Water  troughs  for  ducks,  249. 

Weight  of  wild  turkeys,  263. 

Wheat  as  a  poultry  food,  164. 

White  and  brown  Leghorns  compared, 
28;  white  fowls  preferred,  63;  Holland 
turkeys,  268;  Plymouth  Rocks,  61. 

Wild  turkeys,  261;  crosses  of,  263;  varie- 
ties of,  266;  weight  of,  263. 

Window  shutters,  108. 

Windows,  106;  radiate  heat,  107;  situa- 
tion of,  107. 

Winter  layers,  22. 

Wooden  floors,  105;  construction  of,  96. 

Wyandottes,  description  of,  64;  varie- 
ties of,  65. 

Yards  and  parks,   124;  forms  of,  127; 

location  of,  86;  situation  of,  127;  size 

of,  126. 

Yolk,  color  of,  affected  by  food,  163. 
Young  ducks,  grain  food  for,  250. 


The  Best  and  Newest 
Rural  Books 


BOOKS  ON  LEADING  TOPICS 
CONNECTED  WITH  AGRI- 
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LIFE  ARE  HERE  MENTIONED. 
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OF  A  SPECIALIST,  UNDER  THE 
EDITORIAL  SUPERVISION  OF 
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OR  BY  PROFESSOR  BAILEY 
HIMSELF,  AND  IS  READABLE, 
CLEAR-CUT  AND  PRACTICAL. 


THE   RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES 

Includes  books  which  state  the  underlying  principles 
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The  following  volumes  are  now  ready: 

THE  SOIL.  By  F.  H.  KING,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  303  pp.  4h 
illustrations.  75  cents. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.  By  I.  P.  ROBERTS,  of  Cornell  Univer- 
sity. Fifth  edition.  421  pp.  45  illustrations.  $1.25. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.  By  E.  G.  LODEMAN,  late  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. 399  pp.  92  illustrations.  $1.00. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.  By  H.  H.  WING,  of  Cornell  UniversUy. 
Fifth  edition.  311  pp.  43  illustrations.  $1.00. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT-GROWING.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY.  Fourth 
edition.  516pp.  120  illustrations.  $1.25. 

BUSH-FRUITS.  By  F.  W.  CARD,  of  Rhode  Island  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts.  Second  edition.  537  pp.  113  illustrations.  $1.50. 

FERTILIZERS.  By  E.  B.  VOORHEES,  of  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station. 
Third  edition.  332pp.  $100. 

1'HE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY.  Third  edition. 
300  pp.  92  illustrations.  $1.25. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.  By  F.  H.  King,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
502pp.  163  illustrations.  $1.50. 

THE  FARMSTEAD.    By  I.  P.  ROBERTS.    350  pp.    138  illustrations.    $1.25. 

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THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY 
468  pp.  144  illustrations.  $1.25. 

THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.  By  W.  H.  JORDAN,  of  New  York  State 
Experiment  Station.  450  pp.  $1.25  net. 

FARM  POULTRY.  By  GEORGE  C.  WATSON,  of  Pennsylvania  State  College. 
341  pp.  $1.25  net. 

New  volumes  will  be  added  from  time  to  time  to 
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PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS.    By  J.  C.  ARTHUR,  Purdue  University. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  BREEDING.  By  W.  H.  BREWKR,  of  Yale 
Universitv. 

PLANT  PATHOLOGY.  By  B.  T.  GALLOWAY  and  associates,  of  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

CARE  OF  ANIMALS.    By  N.  S.  MAYO,  of  Connecticut  Agricultural  College. 

THE  POME  FRUITS  (Apples,  Pears.  Quinces).     By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK.  By  I.  P.  ROBERTS,  of  Cornell 
University. 


THE   GARDEN-CRAFT   SERIES 

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called  manuals  of  practice,  and  though  all  are  pre- 
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they  include  the  opinions  and  methods  of  success- 
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THE   HORTICULTURIST'S   RULE-BOOK.      By  L.  H.  BAILEY.     Fourth 
edition.    312  pp.    75  cts. 

THE  NURSERY-BOOK.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.      Fifth  edition.    365  pp.     152 
illustrations.    $1.00. 

PLANT-BREEDING.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    293  pp.    20  illustrations.    $1.00. 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.    By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    266  pp.    88  illustrations.    $1.00. 

GARDEN-MAKING.     By  L.  H.  BAILEY.    Fifth    edition.    417pp.    256  illus- 
trations.   $1.00. 

THE  PRUNING-BOOK.    By  L.  H.  BAILEY.  Fourth  edition.    545  pp.    331 
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THE  PRACTICAL  GARDEN-BOOK.    Ey  C.  E.  HUNN  and  L.  H.  BAILJCY. 
250  pp.    Many  marginal  cuts.    $1.00. 


T 


WORKS    BY  PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

HE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE: 

A  Collection  of  Evolution  Essays  Suggested 
by  the  Study  of  Domestic  Plants.    By  L.  H. 

BAILEY,    Professor  of    Horticulture   in   the  Cornell 
University. 

FOURTH  EDITION- 51  5    PACES       22    ILLUSTRATIONS       $2.00 

To  those  interested  in  the  underlying  philosophy 
of  plant  life,  this  volume,  written  in  a  most  enter- 
taining style,  and  fully  illustrated,  will  prove  wel- 
come. It  treats  of  the  modification  of  plants  under 
cultivation  upon  the  evolution  theory,  and  its  atti- 
tude on  this  interesting  subject  is  characterized 
by  the  author's  well-known  originality  and  inde- 
pendence of  thought.  Incidentally,  there  is  stated 
much  that  will  be  valuable  and  suggestive  to  the 
working  horticulturist,  as  well  as  to  the  man  or 
woman  impelled  by  a  love  of  nature  to  horticul- 
tural pursuits.  It  may  well  be  called,  indeed,  a 
philosophy  of  horticulture,  in  which  all  interested 
may  find  inspiration  and  instruction. 

THE  SURVIVAL  OP  THK  UNLIKE  comprises  thirty  essays  touching 
upon  The  General  Fact  and  Philosophy  of  Evolution  (The  Plant 
Individual,  Experimental  Evolution,  Coxey's  Army  and  the  Russian 
Thistle,  Recent  Progress,  etc.);  Expounding  the  Fact  and  Causes  of 
Variation  (The  Supposed  Correlations  of  Quality  in  Fruits,  Natural 
History  of  Synonyms,  Reflective  Impressions,  Relation  of  Seed- 
bearing  to  Cultivation,  Variation  after  Birth,  Relation  between 
American  and  Eastern  Asian  Fruits,  Horticultural  Geography,  Prob- 
lems of  Climate  and  Plants,  American  Fruits,  Acclimatization,  Sex 
in  Fruits,  Novelties,  Promising  Varieties,  etc.);  and  Tracing  the 
Evolution  of  Particular  Types  of  Plants  (the  Cultivated  Strawberry, 
Battle  of  the  Plums,  Grapes,  Progress  of  the  Carnation.  Petunia, 
The  Garden  Tomato,  etc.). 


T 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

HE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NA- 
TIVE FRUITS.  By  L.  H.  BAILEY,  Pro- 
fessor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  University. 

472    PACES— 126    ILLUSTRATIONS  — 32.00 

In  this  entertaining  volume,  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the  fruits  peculiar  to  North  America 
are  inquired  into,  and  the  personality  of  those  horti- 
cultural pioneers  whose  almost  forgotten  labors 
have  given  us  our  most  valuable  fruits  is  touched 
upon.  There  has  been  careful  research  into  the 
history  of  the  various  fruits,  including  inspection 
of  the  records  of  the  great  European  botanists  who 
have  given  attention  to  American  economic  botany. 
The  conclusions  reached,  the  information  presented, 
and  the  suggestions  as  to  future  developments,  can- 
not but  be  valuable  to  any  thoughtful  fruit-grower, 
while  the  terse  style  of  the  author  is  at  its  best  in 
his  treatment  of  the  subject. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  NATIVE  FRUITS  discusses  The  Rise  ot 
the  American  Grape  (North  America  a  Natural  Vineland,  Attempts 
to  Cultivate  the  European  Grape,  The  Experiments  of  the  Dufours, 
The  Branch  of  Promise,  John  Adlum  and  the  Catawba,  Rise  of 
Commercial  Viticulture,  Why  Did  the  Early  Vine  Experiments  Pail  ? 
Synopsis  of  the  American  Grapes) ;  The  Strange  History  of  the  Mul- 
berries (The  Early  Silk  Industry,  The  "Multicaulis  Craze,") ;  Evolu- 
tion of  American  Plums  and  Cherries  (Native  Plums  in  General, 
The  Chickasaw,  Hortulana,  Marianna  and  Beach  Plum  Groups, 
Pacific  Coast  Plum,  Various  Other  Types  of  Plums,  Natwe  Cherries, 
Dwarf  Cherry  Group) ;  Native  Apples  (Indigenous  Species,  Amelio- 
ration has  begun);  Origin  of  American  Raspberry-growing  (Early 
American  History,  Present  Types,  Outlying  Types) ;  Evolution  of 
Blackberry  and  Dewberry  Culture  (The  High -bush  Blackberry  and 
Its  Kin,  The  Dewberries,  Botanical  Names);  Various  Types  of 
Berry-like  Fruits'  (The  Gooseberry,  Native  Currants,  Juneberry, 
Buffalo  Berry,  Elderberry,  High-bush  Cranberry,  Cranberry,  Straw- 
berrv);  Various  Types  of  Tree  Fruits  (Persimmon,  Custard-Apple 
Tribe,  Thorn-Apples,  Nut-Fruits) ;  General  Remarks  on  the  Improve- 
ment of  our  Native  Fruits  (What  Has  Been  Done,  What  Probably 
Should  Be  Done). 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

ESSONS  WITH  PLANTS:  Sugges- 
tions for  Seeing  and  Interpreting  Some  of 
the  Common  Forms  of  Vegetation.  By  L. 

H.  BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell 
University,  with  delineations  from  nature  by  W.  S. 
HOLDSWORTH,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Michigan. 

SECOND  EDITION— 491  PACES— 446  ILLUSTRATIONS— 1  2  MO- 
CLOTH— SI.  10  NET 

There  are  two  ways  of  looking  at  nature.  The 
old  way,  which  you  have  found  so  unsatisfactory, 
was  to  classify  everything — to  consider  leaves,  roots, 
and  whole  plants  as  formal  herbarium  specimens, 
forgetting  that  each  had  its  own  story  of  growth 
and  development,  struggle  and  success,  to  tell. 
Nothing  stifles  a  natural  love  for  j)lants  more  effect- 
ually than  that  old  way. 

The  new  way  is  to  watch  the  life  of  every  grow- 
ing thing,  to  look  upon  each  plant  as  a  living 
creatu-re,  whose  life  is  a  story  as  fascinating  as  the 
story  of  any  favorite  hero.  "Lessons  with  Plants" 
is  a  book  of  stories,  or  rather,  a  book  of  plays,  for 
we  can  see  each  chapter  acted  out  if  we  take  the 
trouble  to  look  at  the  actors. 

"  I  have  spent  some  time  in  most  delightful  examination  of  it,  and  the 
longer  I  look,  the  better  I  like  it.  I  find  it  not  only  full  of  interest,  but 
eminently  suggestive.  I  know  of  no  book  which  begins  to  do  so  much  to 
open  the  eyes  of  the  student —whether  pupil  or  teacher  — to  the  wealth  of 
meaning  contained  in  simple  plant  forms.  Above  all  else,  it  seems  to  be 
full  of  suggestions  that  help  one  to  learn  the  language  of  plants,  so  they 
may  talk  to  him."—  DARWIN  L.  BARDWELL,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  King* 
hamton. 

"It  is  an  admirable  book,  and  cannot  fail  both  to  awaken  interest  in 
the  subject,  and  to  serve  as  a  helpful  and  reliable  guide  to  young  students 
of  plant  life.  It  will,  I  think,  fill  an  important  place  in  secondary  schools, 
and  comes  at  an  opportune  time,  when  helps  of  this  kind  are  needed  and 
eagerly  sought."— Professor  V.  M.  SPALDING,  University  of  Michigan. 

FIRST    LESSONS   WITH    PLANTS 

An  Abridgement  of  the  above.  117  pages — 116  illustra- 
tions— 40  cents  net. 


WORKS   BY   PROFESSOR    BAILEY 


B 


OTANY :  An  Elementary  Text  for  Schools. 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY. 

355    PACES-500    ILLUSTRATIONS-SI  .10   NET 


"This  book  is  made  for  the  pupil:  '  Lessons  With  Plants' 
was  made  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  teacher."  This  is  the 
opening  sentence  of  the  preface,  showing  that  the  book  is  a 
companion  to  "Lessons  With  Plants,"  which  has  now  become  a 
standard  teacher's  book.  The  present  book  is  the  handsomest 
elementary  botanical  text-book  yet  made.  The  illustrations 
illustrate.  They  are  artistic.  The  old  formal  and  unnatural 
Botany  is  being  rapidly  outgrown.  The  book  disparages  mere 
laboratory  work  of  the  old  kind:  the  pupil  is  taught  to  see  things 
as  they  grow  and  behave.  The  pupil  who  goes  through  this  book 
will  understand  the  meaning  of  the  plants  which  he  sees  day 
by  day.  It  is  a  revolt  from  the  dry-as-dust  teaching  of  botany. 
It  cares  little  for  science  for  science'  sake,  but  its  point  of  view 
is  nature-study  in  its  best  sense.  The  book  is  divided  into  four 
parts,  any  or  all  of  which  may  be  used  in  the  school:  the  plant 
itself;  the  plant  in  its  environment;  histology,  or  the  minute 
structure  of  plants;  the  kinds  of  plants  (with  a  key,  and  de- 
scriptions of  300  common  species).  The  introduction  contains 
ad  vice  to  teachers.  The  book  is  brand  new  from  start  to 
finish. 

"An  exceedingly  attractive  text-book." — Educational  Review. 
"It  is  a  school  book  of  the  modern  methods." — The  Dial. 

"It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  better  manual  for  schools  or  for  indi- 
vidual use."— The  Outlook. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

No.  66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


T 


WORKS    BY    PROFESSOR    BAILEY 

HE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
HORTICULTURE:   By  L.  H.  BAILEY,  of 

Cornell  University,  assisted  by  WILHELM  MILLER, 
and  many  expert  cultivators  and  botanists. 

4  VOLS.   OVER  28OO  ORIGINAL  ENGRAVINGS  -  CLOTH  —  OCTAVO 
$20.00  NET  PER  SET.   HALF  MOROCCO,  S32.OO  NET  PER  SET 

This  great  work  comprises  directions  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  horticultural  crops  and  original  descrip- 
tions of  all  the  species  of  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers 
and  ornamental  plants  known  to  be  in  the  market  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  "It  has  the  unique 
distinction  of  presenting'  for  the  first  time,  in  a  care- 
fully arranged  and  perfectly  accessible  form,  the  best 
knowledge  of  the  best  specialists  in  America  upon 
gardening,  fruit-growing,  vegetable  culture,  forestry, 
and  the  like,  as  well  as  exact  botanical  information. 
.  .  .  The  contributors  are  eminent  cultivators  or 
specialists,  and  the  arrangement  is  very  systematic, 
clear  and  convenient  for  ready  reference." 

"We  have  here  a  work  which  every  ambitions  gardener  will  wish  to  place 
on  his  sheit'  beside  his  Nicholson  and  his  London,  and  for  such  users  of  it  a 
too  advanced  nomenclature  would  have  been  confusing  to  the  last  degree. 
With  the  safe  names  here  given,  there  is  little  liability  to  serious  perplexity. 
There  is  a  growing  impatience  with  much  of  the  controversy  concerning 
revision  of  names  of  organisms,  whether  of  plants  or  animals.  Those  in- 
vestigators who  are  busied  with  the  ecolog'cal  aspects  of  organisms,  and 
also  those  who  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  application  of  plants  to  the 
arts  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  so  on,  care  for  the  names  of  organisms 
under  examination  only  so  far  as  these  aid  in  recognition  and  identification. 
To  introduce  unnecessary  confusion  is  a  serious  blunder.  Professor  Bailey 
has  avoided  the  risk  of  confusion.  In  short,  in  range,  treatment  and  edit- 
ing, the  Cyclopedia  appears  to  be  emphatically  useful  ;  .  .  .  a  work  worthy 
of  ranking  by  the  side  of  the  Century  Dictionary."  —  The  Nation. 

This  work  is  sold  only  by  subscription,  and  terms  and 
further  information  may  be  had  of  the  publishers. 


THE    MACMIL         COMPANY 


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